Explore essential facts and insights from Assam, India, and the world in “Assam to World–G K”—a student-friendly general knowledge book ideal for learners and exam aspirants. Authored by Rabbi Masrur, this concise and accessible guide empowers readers with updated information for academic success and personal growth.

Assam to World G K

(An Encyclopedia of General Knowledge)

Rabbi Masrur

Growhills Publishing
Barpeta, Assam

Part-I: Assam

(Assam to World-G K)

Chapter-1: Geography of  Assam

Geography of Assam: An Overview

Introduction: Assam is a northeastern state of India, known for its rich culture, diverse geography, and historical significance.

Location: Assam is located in Northeastern India and lies between 24° North to 28° North latitude and 89° East to 96° East longitude.It covers an area of 78,438 sq km, making it the 16th largest state in India. The state shares borders with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and West Bengal, and international borders with Bangladesh and Bhutan.

Official Name: Assam (Axom)

Capital: Dispur

Largest City: Guwahati

Area: 78,438 sq km (16th largest state in India)

Population: Approx. 35 million (as per 2011 Census)

Official Language: Assamese

Other Languages: Bengali, Bodo, Hindi, English

Climatic Zones of Assam

The climate of Assam varies across different regions based on altitude and geographical factors:

(i) Brahmaputra Valley (Central Assam): Subtropical monsoon climate with heavy rainfall.

 (ii) Barak Valley (Southern Assam): Similar to Brahmaputra Valley but slightly warmer.

(iii) Hill Areas (Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao): Cool and pleasant due to higher elevation.

(iv) Northern Assam (Bordering Arunachal Pradesh): Cooler temperatures, foggy winters.

Seasons in Assam

Assam experiences four main seasons:

(i) Summer (March to May)

(ii) Monsoon (June to September)

(iii) Autumn (October to November)

(iii) Winter (December to February)

Origins of Different Names of Assam

The name ‘Assam’ has evolved through various historical periods, influenced by different dynasties, cultures, and languages. Below is a detailed account of the origins of different names associated with Assam:

Pragjyotishpur – The Ancient Name

Meaning: ‘Pragjyotishpur’ means “City of Eastern Astrology” (‘Prag’ = East, ‘Jyotish’ = Astrology, ‘Pur’ = City).

Mentioned in:  ‘The Mahabharata’ (as the kingdom of King Bhagadatta, an ally of the Kauravas).

Ancient Hindu scriptures such as the ‘Kalika Purana and Vishnu Purana’.

Kamarupa– The Classical Name

Meaning:  ‘Kamarupa’ means “Land where Love (Kama) took a new form (Rupa)”.

Associated with Hindu mythology—the legend of Goddess Sati’s body parts falling on earth, leading to the formation of ‘Shakti Peethas’, including ‘Kamakhya Temple’.

Mentioned in:  ‘Inscription of the Allahabad Pillar’ by Samudragupta (4th century CE).

Chinese traveler Xuanzang’s accounts (7th century CE).

Kamata – The Medieval Name

Meaning:  The name ‘Kamata’ is believed to have derived from ‘Kamarupa’, but with modifications over time.

Asama – The Ahom Influence

Meaning: The word ‘Asama’ comes from the Tai-Ahom language, meaning ‘unequal’ or ‘peerless’, referring to the invincibility of the Ahom people.

In Sanskrit, ‘Asama’ also means ‘unequalled’ or ‘unparalleled.’

Assam – The Modern Name

Evolution: The British colonial rulers anglicized ‘Asama’ to ‘Assam’ in official documents.

The name ‘Assam’ became the standard name during British rule (1826–1947).

Official Recognition: ‘Assam’ became the official name of the state when it was included in the Indian Union in 1947.

The Assamese script spells it as Õü÷ (Oxom).

Administrative Divisions of Assam

Assam is divided into 5 administrative divisions, each consisting of multiple districts. The divisions ensure smooth governance and effective management.

1. Lower Assam Division – HQ: Guwahati
2. North Assam Division – HQ: Tezpur
3. Upper Assam Division – HQ: Jorhat
4. Barak Valley Division – HQ: Silchar
5. Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) – HQ: Kokrajhar

Districts of Assam

      Assam has 35 districts, each governed by a Deputy Commissioner (DC), also known as the District Magistrate. The districts are grouped under the five administrative divisions.

List of Districts by Division

(a) Lower Assam Division

1. Baksa 2. Barpeta
2. Bongaigaon 4. Chirang
3. Dhubri 6. Goalpara
4. Kamrup (Rural) 8. Kamrup Metro
5. Kokrajhar 10. Nalbari
6. South Salmara-Mankachar

(b) North Assam Division

12. Biswanath 13. Darrang
13. Sonitpur 15. Udalguri

(c) Upper Assam Division

16. Charaideo 17. Dhemaji
17. Dibrugarh 19. Golaghat
18. Jorhat 21. Lakhimpur
19. Majuli 23. Sivasagar
20. Tinsukia

d) Barak Valley Division

25. Cachar 26. Hailakandi
26. Karimganj

(e) Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR)

28. Baksa          29. Chirang
29. Kokrajhar     31. Udalguri

(f) Recently Created Districts

32. Bajali (carved out of Barpeta)
33. Tamulpur (carved out of Baksa)
34. Hojai (carved out of Nagaon)
35. West Karbi Anglong (separated from Karbi Anglong)

Revenue Circles (Tehsils) of Assam

Each district is divided into Revenue Circles (Tehsils), which deal with land revenue collection and administration.

Assam has around 155 revenue circles, each headed by a Circle Officer (CO). Examples:

Kamrup Metropolitan District: Dispur, Guwahati, Sonapur Circles.

Dibrugarh District: Moran, Tengakhat, Chabua Circles.

Development Blocks of Assam

Each district consists of several Development Blocks that manage rural development and Panchayati Raj administration. These are headed by Block Development Officers (BDOs).

Assam has 219 Development Blocks under the Panchayati Raj system. Examples:

Jorhat District: Jorhat Block, Titabor Block.

Tinsukia District: Hapjan Block, Doom Dooma Block.

Legislative & Judicial Administration of Assam

Legislative Assembly: Assam has a unicameral legislature (Assam Legislative Assembly) with 126 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs).

Judiciary: The Gauhati High Court (in Guwahati) is the highest judicial authority in Assam.

The administrative structure of Assam ensures efficient governance, revenue management, and local self-government. The five divisions, 35 districts, numerous sub-divisions, revenue circles, development blocks, and autonomous councils contribute to effective administration in the state.

Rivers Valleys of Assam

1. Brahmaputra River Basin (North and Central Assam)
2. Barak River Basin (Southern Assam – Barak Valley)

Major Lakes and Wetlands of Assam

1. Deepor Beel – A Ramsar Site near Guwahati, rich in biodiversity.
2. Son Beel – The largest wetland in Assam, located in Karimganj.
3. Tamranga Beel – A significant wetland in western Assam.
4. Sareswar Beel – Found in Barpeta.
5. Morikolong Beel – Located in Nagaon district.

Airports of Assam

Assam, being the gateway to Northeast India, has a well-developed aviation infrastructure. The state has several airports catering to domestic and international passengers, playing a crucial role in connectivity, tourism, trade, and defense.

The airports in Assam can be categorized as:

International Airport – 1

Domestic Airports – 6

Proposed/Upcoming Airports – 2

Defense Airstrips & Helipads – Several

List of Operational Airports in Assam

1. Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport (LGBI), Guwahati
2. Dibrugarh Airport (Mohanbari Airport)
3. Silchar Airport (Kumbhirgram Airport)
4. Jorhat Airport (Rowriah Airport)
5. Tezpur Airport (Salonibari Airport)
6. Lilabari Airport (North Lakhimpur Airport)
7. Rupsi Airport

Defense Airstrips & Helipads in Assam

Major Defense Airbases of Assam:

1. Chabua Air Force Station (Near Dibrugarh) – Indian Air Force base.
2. Missamari Air Force Station (Near Tezpur) – Strategic airbase.
3. Tezpur Air Force Base (Salonibari) – Key military airbase.

Important Helipads of Assam:

1. Guwahati (Dispur, Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport).
2. Kaziranga National Park (For VIP and tourism).
3. Haflong, Diphu, and Majuli (For emergency services).

Major National Highways in Assam

1. NH 27 – Connects Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar (Assam), passing through Goalpara, Guwahati, Nagaon, and Silchar.
2. NH 37 – Runs from Goalpara to Dibrugarh, covering Guwahati, Kaziranga, Jorhat, and Dibrugarh.
3. NH 15 – Extends from Baihata Chariali to Wakro (Arunachal Pradesh), passing through Tezpur, Lakhimpur, and Dhemaji.
4. NH 17 – Connects Jalukbari (Guwahati) to the West Bengal border, passing through Dhubri and Bongaigaon.
5. NH 127B – Acts as a corridor between Assam, Meghalaya, and Bhutan, covering Dhubri and Hatsingimari.
6. NH 29 – Links Assam and Nagaland, running through Dimapur and Bokajan.
7. NH 715 – Connects Tezpur to Jorhat, passing through Kaziranga National Park.
8. NH 702 – Runs between Assam and Nagaland, covering Tuli and Amguri.
9. NH 627 – Connects Assam and Meghalaya, running through Nongstoin and Boko.

These highways are crucial for transportation, trade, and connectivity in Assam.

Vehicle Codes of the Districts of Assam

In Assam, vehicle registration codes (RTO codes) are assigned to different districts for vehicle identification and registration purposes. These codes are prefixed with ‘AS-‘ followed by a number representing the district.

1. AS-01 – Kamrup Metropolitan (Guwahati)
2. AS-02 – Nagaon
3. AS-03 – Jorhat
4. AS-04 – Sivasagar
5. AS-05 – Golaghat
6. AS-06 – Dibrugarh
7. AS-07 – Lakhimpur
8. AS-08 – Dima Hasao (North Cachar Hills)
9. AS-09 – Karbi Anglong
10. AS-10 – Karimganj
11. AS-11 – Cachar (Silchar)
12. AS-12 – Sonitpur
13. AS-13 – Darrang
14. AS-14 – Nalbari
15. AS-15 – Barpeta
16. AS-16 – Kokrajhar
17. AS-17 – Dhubri
18. AS-18 – Goalpara
19. AS-19 – Bongaigaon
20. AS-20 – Assam Police Vehicles
21. AS-21 – Tinsukia
22. AS-22 – Hailakandi
23. AS-23 – Kamrup Rural
24. AS-24 – Chirang
25. AS-25 – Udalguri
26. AS-26 – Baksa
27. AS-27 – Morigaon
28. AS-28 – Dhemaji
29. AS-29 – Biswanath
30. AS-30 – Charaideo
31. AS-31 – Hojai
32. AS-32 – Majuli
33. AS-33 – South Salmara-Mankachar
34. AS-34 – West Karbi Anglong

These vehicle codes help in identifying the district of vehicle registration in Assam.

Districts of Assam with their Land  Area

Here is the list of Assam’s 35 districts along with their land area, categorized by administrative divisions:

(a) Lower Assam Division 

1. Baksa – 2,457 km²
2. Barpeta – 3,182 km²
3. Bongaigaon – 1,093 km²
4. Chirang – 1,170 km²
5. Dhubri – 1,608 km²
6. Goalpara – 1,824 km²
7. Kamrup (Rural) – 3,105 km²
8. Kamrup Metro – 1,528 km²
9. Kokrajhar – 3,169 km²
10. Nalbari – 2,257 km²
11. South Salmara-Mankachar – 568 km²

b) North Assam Division

12. Biswanath – 1,100 km²
13. Darrang – 1,585 km²
14. Sonitpur – 3,176 km²
15. Udalguri – 1,852 km²

(c) Upper Assam Division

16. Charaideo – 1,069 km²
17. Dhemaji – 3,237 km²
18. Dibrugarh – 3,381 km²
19. Golaghat – 3,502 km²
20. Jorhat – 2,851 km²
21. Lakhimpur – 2,277 km²
22. Majuli – 880 km²
23. Sivasagar – 2,668 km²
24. Tinsukia – 3,790 km²

(d) Barak Valley Division

25. Cachar – 3,786 km²
26. Hailakandi – 1,327 km²
27. Karimganj – 1,809 km²

(e) Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) 

28. Baksa – 2,457 km²
29. Chirang – 1,170 km²
30. Kokrajhar – 3,169 km²
31. Udalguri – 1,852 km²

f) Recently Created Districts

32. Bajali – 955 km² (Carved out of Barpeta)
33. Tamulpur – 1,340 km² (Carved out of Baksa)
34. Hojai – 1,685 km² (Carved out of Nagaon)
35. West Karbi Anglong – 3,035 km² (Separated from Karbi Anglong)

Bridges Across  the Brahmaputra

Assam is home to several significant bridges spanning the Brahmaputra River, enhancing connectivity and fostering economic growth in the region. Here is a list of notable bridges across the Brahmaputra in Assam:

1. Saraighat Bridge: Inaugurated in 1962, this was the first rail-cum-road bridge over the Brahmaputra, connecting Guwahati to North Guwahati.
2. Kolia Bhomora Setu: Opened in 1987, this 3.15 km long road bridge connects Tezpur in Sonitpur district to Kaliabor in Nagaon district.
3. Naranarayan Setu: Inaugurated in 1998, this bridge links Jogighopa in Bongaigaon district to Pancharatna in Goalpara district, serving both rail and road traffic.
4. Bogibeel Bridge: Opened in 2018, this 4.94 km long rail-cum-road bridge connects Dhemaji district and Dibrugarh district, enhancing connectivity in Upper Assam.
5. New Saraighat Bridge: Adjacent to the original Saraighat Bridge, this beam bridge was constructed to accommodate increasing traffic and was opened to the public in 2017.
6. Dhubri-Phulbari Bridge: Currently under construction, this bridge will connect Dhubri in Assam to Phulbari in Meghalaya. Upon completion, it is expected to be India’s second-longest bridge over water, spanning more than 19 km.

These bridges play a crucial role in improving transportation, trade, and overall development in Assam and the surrounding regions.  0 0 0

Chapter 2: History of Assam

Prehistoric Assam

Archaeological evidence suggests that human habitation in Assam dates back to the ‘Stone Age’. The following periods can be identified:

Paleolithic Age (before 10,000 BCE) – Stone tools discovered in various parts of Assam indicate early human settlement.

Neolithic Age (around 5000 BCE) – Evidence of polished stone tools and pottery has been found in the North Cachar Hills, Karbi Anglong, and Garo Hills.

Chalcolithic Age (around 2000 BCE) – Copper artifacts and early forms of metal usage emerged.

Early Historical Period (Before 4th Century)

The early recorded history of Assam begins with references in Vedic and Epic literature.

Pragjyotisha in Hindu Mythology: The earliest references to Assam come from the ‘Mahabharata’, ‘Ramayana’, and Puranas’, where Pragjyotisha is mentioned as a powerful kingdom. The legendary king Narakasura and his son Bhagadatta (who fought in the Kurukshetra war) were rulers of Pragjyotisha.

Influence of Vedic Culture: Though Assam was geographically distant from the Indo-Gangetic plain, Vedic traditions and Aryan influences gradually penetrated the region.

Tribal Kingdoms: Assam was home to several tribes, including the Bodos, Kacharis, Chutias, Morans, and Dimasas, who played a crucial role in shaping its early history.

Kamarupa Kingdom (4th Cent – 12th Cent) 

The Kamarupa Kingdom was one of the earliest and most significant political entities in ancient Assam. It flourished from around the 4th century CE to the 12th century CE, with its capital shifting over time from Pragjyotishpura (modern Guwahati) to Haruppeshvara (Tezpur) and later Durjaya (North Guwahati).

Important Dynasties of Kamarupa

      Three major dynasties ruled Kamarupa during the early Historical Period of Assam:

i) The Varman Dynasty (c. 350 CE – 650 CE):

Founded by Pushyavarman (c. 350 CE).

The most famous ruler was Bhaskaravarman (c. 600 CE – 650 CE), who was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and played a key role in North Indian politics.

Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang) visited Assam during Bhaskaravarman’s reign and described it as a prosperous kingdom.

(ii) The Mlechchha Dynasty (c. 650 CE – 900 CE) 

Founded by Salastambha, a non-Aryan ruler.

This dynasty continued the legacy of Kamarupa and maintained regional stability.

Capital shifted to Haruppeshvara (modern Tezpur).

(iii) The Pala Dynasty (c. 900 CE – 1100 CE)

Founded by Brahmapala.

The kingdom saw significant Hindu-Buddhist syncretism during this period.

The last known ruler was Jayapala, who ruled until the 12th century CE.

Major Kingdoms of Medieval Assam

1. Ahom Kingdom (1228 CE – 1826 CE):
2. Koch Kingdom (16th – 18th Century)
3. Chutiya Kingdom (12th – 16th Century)
4. Kachari Kingdom (Ancient – 19th Century)

Major Battles and External Threats

Mughal Invasions:  Mughals attacked Assam multiple times (1615, 1638, 1662, 1671).

The Battle of Saraighat (1671 CE) was the greatest Ahom victory against the Mughals under Lachit Borphukan.

Burmese Invasion (1817–1826 CE): The Burmese (Konbaung dynasty) invaded Assam, leading to immense destruction.

Assam fell into chaos, leading to British intervention.

The Treaty of Yandabo (1826 CE) ended Burmese rule and brought Assam under British control.

The Ahom Kings: Chronology

The Ahom dynasty ruled the Ahom Kingdom in present-day Assam, India, for nearly 600 years (1228–1838). Here is a chronological list of the Ahom kings:

Sukaphaa (1228–1268) – The founder of the Ahom kingdom.

Suseupha (1268–1281) – Expanded the kingdom.

Subinpha (1281–1293) – Strengthened administration.

Sukhaangphaa (Taokhamti) (1293–1332) – Faced early challenges.

Sutuphaa (1332–1364) – Assassinated by his ministers.

Sukhaapha (Chao Pulai) (1364–1376) – Stabilized the kingdom.

Sukhrangpha (Chao Pha Khen) (1376–1401) – Consolidated power.

Suhungmung (Dihingia Raja) (1401–1422) – Strengthened defense.

Suhenphaa (1422–1439) – Maintained internal stability.

Suhunmung (Chao Pha Phai) (1439–1488) – Period of expansion.

Suhung (Chao Pha Kham) (1488–1493) – Ruled briefly.

Suhenmung (Dihingia Raja) (1493–1539) – Expanded the Ahom kingdom significantly.

Suklenmung (Garhgayan Raja) (1539–1552) – Strengthened the administration.

Sukhaamphaa (Khora Raja) (1552–1603) – Dealt with internal rebellions.

Susenghphaa (Pratap Singha) (1603–1641) – One of the greatest Ahom rulers, reformed the administration.

Sutamla (Jayadhwaj Singha) (1641–1663) – Faced Mughal invasions.

Supangmung (Chakradhwaj Singha) (1663–1670) – Defended against the Mughals.

Sunyatphaa (Udayaditya Singha) (1670–1672) – A short reign.

Suklamphaa (Ramdhwaj Singha) (1672–1674) – Overthrown.

Suhungphaa (Gobar Raja) (1674) – Briefly ruled before being deposed.

Sudarphaa (Chakraphaa) (1674–1675) – Assassinated.

Sukhrungphaa (Rudra Singha) (1696–1714) – One of the most powerful Ahom rulers, promoted culture and administration.

Sutanphaa (Siba Singha) (1714–1744) – Encouraged Vaishnavism.

Suremphaa (Pramatta Singha) (1744–1751) – Weak ruler.

Rajeswar Singha (1751–1769) – Faced internal dissent.

Lakshmi Singha (1769–1780) – Saw the Moamoria rebellion.

Rudra Singha II (1780) – Ruled for a very short time.

Gaurinath Singha (1780–1795) – Struggled against the Moamoria rebellion.

Kamaleswar Singha (1795–1811) – A puppet ruler under the Burhagohain.

Chandrakanta Singha (1811–1818, 1821–1822) – Deposed twice.

Purandar Singha (1818–1819, 1833–1838) – The last Ahom king before British annexation.

The Koch Kings: Chronology

The Koch Kingdom (also called Koch Dynasty) was established in the 16th century in present-day Assam and parts of Bengal. Here’s a chronological list of its rulers.

Biswa Singha (1515–1540) – Founder of the Koch dynasty, unified the Koch tribes.

Nara Narayan (1540–1587) – The most powerful Koch ruler, expanded the kingdom and patronized culture.

Division of the Koch Kingdom (1581)

After Nara Narayan’s rule, the kingdom split into two branches:

Koch Bihar (Western Branch) – Ruled by Nara Narayan’s descendants.

Koch Hajo (Eastern Branch) – Ruled by Raghudev, his nephew.

Koch Bihar Kings: Chronology

Lakshmi Narayan (1587–1621) – Became a Mughal vassal.

Bir Narayan (1621–1626) – Short rule.

Pran Narayan (1626–1665) – Strengthened the kingdom but faced Mughal invasions.

Madan Narayan (1665–1680) – A period of decline.

Basant Narayan (1680–1683) – Brief and weak reign.

Mahamana Narayan (1683–1693) – Little is known about his rule.

Rajendra Narayan (1693–1714) – Continued as a Mughal vassal.

Upendra Narayan (1714–1763) – Faced conflicts with Bhutan.

Devendra Narayan (1763–1765) – Weak ruler, lost power.

Dharendra Narayan (1765–1770) – Saw growing British influence.

Dharmendra Narayan (1770–1772) – Deposed by Bhutanese forces.

Rupendra Narayan (1772–1774) – Helped by the British.

Rajendra Narayan II (1774–1775) – Short reign.

Harendra Narayan (1775–1783) – Continued as a British ally.

Shivendra Narayan (1783–1802) – British control over the kingdom increased.

Dwarendra Narayan (1802–1812) – Puppet ruler under the British.

Harendra Narayan II (1812–1839) – Last independent Koch Bihar king.

Shivenra Narayan II (1839–1847) – Koch Bihar became a princely state under the British.

Chronology of Chutia Kings

Birpal (1187–1210) – Founded the Chutia Kingdom.

Bikrampal (1210–1240) – Expanded the territory.

Vishwadarpa (1240–1260) – Strengthened administration.

Vijayadhwajpal (1260–1280) – Faced conflicts with neighboring states.

Dhirnarayanpal (1280–1300) – Improved trade and agriculture.

Satyanarayanpal (1300–1325) – Increased military strength.

Nitipal (1325–1350) – Consolidated control over eastern Assam.

Srikrishna Dharanidharpal (1350–1385) – Patronized arts and literature.

Dhirnarayanpal II (1385–1410) – Faced Ahom conflicts.

Satyanarayanpal II (1410–1430) – Strengthened defenses.

Nitipal II (1430–1450) – Expanded into Arunachal Pradesh.

Dhirnarayanpal III (1450–1475) – Last strong Chutia ruler.

Srikrishna Dharanidharpal II (1475–1524)

Chronology of Kachari Kings

Ha-tsung-tsa (12th century) – Founded the kingdom in Dimapur.

Tamradhar (13th century) – Strengthened administration.

Detsung (14th century) – Faced external threats.

Jasa Manik (1500s) – Shifted capital to Maibang.

Nirbhay Narayan (1600s) – Fought against Ahoms.

Harish Chandra Narayan (1600s) – Strengthened fortifications.

Megh Chandra Narayan (1600s–1700s) – Declining power.

Krishna Chandra Narayan (18th century) – Moved capital to Khaspur.

Govinda Chandra Narayan (1813–1830) – Last ruler, kingdom annexed by the British in 1854.

Baro-Bhuyan Confederacy (14th–17th Cen): Chronology

Harup Narayan (late 14th century) – Defended against early invaders.

Chandibar (15th century) – Established influence in Kamrup.

Durlabh Narayan (16th century) – Resisted Koch and Ahom expansion.

Balinarayan (later Jayadhwaj Singha of Ahom Kingdom) – Joined Ahoms.

Chronology of Jaintia Kings

Prabhat Ray (16th century) – Founded the Jaintia Kingdom.

Bikram Manik (1600s) – Strengthened the kingdom.

Jaso Manik (1640s) – Defended against Ahoms and Mughals.

Chhatra Manik (1700s) – Cultural expansion.

Bishnu Manik (18th century) – Struggled with internal conflicts.

Ram Singh Manik (1800s) – Last ruler before British annexation in 1835.

Chronology of Tripra Kings:

Ratna Manikya (13th century) – Established Twipra rule.

Indra Manikya (15th century) – Strengthened the military.

Govinda Manikya (16th century) – Faced conflicts with Mughals.

Chhatra Manikya (17th century) – Patronized culture.

Dhanya Manikya (18th century) – Resisted British influence.

Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya (1923–1947) – Last independent ruler before merging with India in 1949.

Chronology of Mayamara Leaders

Mayamara Satradhikar (1769) – Led the Moamoria Rebellion against the Ahoms.

Raghav Moran (1780s) – Established a temporary kingdom.

Bishnu Moran (1790s) – Continued resistance against Ahoms.

Aniruddha Moran (1805) – Defeated by Ahoms, ending Mayamara rule.

These kingdoms played a crucial role in shaping Assam’s medieval history.

British Annexation & Colonial Rule (1826–1947)

Treaty of Yandabo (1826): The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) led to the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo on 24 February 1826.

The treaty ended Burmese control over Assam and marked the beginning of British rule in the region.

The British initially kept Assam under the administration of the Governor-General of Bengal.

Early British Administration:  David Scott was the first British Commissioner of Assam.

British policies focused on revenue collection and tea plantation development.

The local Ahom nobility lost power, and new land revenue systems were introduced.

Tea Plantations and Economic Changes: The British introduced tea plantations in Assam (first tea garden in Chabua, 1837).

Large-scale migration of indentured laborers from Bihar, Odisha, and Bengal.

Establishment of railways and road networks to support tea industries.

Revolts Against British Rule: Ahom Revolt (1828–1830): Led by Gomdhar Konwar against British rule.

Kachari Revolt (1830–1833): Rebellion by the Dimasa Kacharis against colonial policies.

Phulaguri Dhawa (1861): Peasant uprising against increased taxation.

Patharughat Uprising (1894): Farmers’ resistance against excessive land revenue demands.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements in Assam

Assamese Renaissance: Inspired by Jonaki Movement (1889) that promoted Assamese literature and nationalism.

Key figures: Hemchandra Barua, Gunabhiram Barua, Anandaram Dhekial Phukan.

Contributions of Srimanta Sankardeva: The Neo-Vaishnavism movement deeply influenced Assamese society.

Satra institutions played a crucial role in preserving Assamese culture.

Role of Missionaries: Christian missionaries like Miles Bronson contributed to Assamese education.

American Baptist Mission introduced Assamese printing press and textbooks.

Freedom Movement in Assam

1. Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911): Response to Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon.
2. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Led by Mahatma Gandhi at the national level.
3. Quit India Movement (1942): Assam played a crucial role under the leadership of Gopinath Bordoloi, Kanaklata Barua, and Kushal Konwar.
4. Battle of Kohima (1944): INA attempted to take control of the Northeast from the British.

Freedom Fighters of Assam

Here is a list of notable freedom fighters of Assam who played a significant role in India’s struggle for independence:

1. Gomdhar Konwar (1805–1833)

One of the first Assamese leaders to revolt against British rule.

Led an armed rebellion against British annexation in 1828.

Arrested and imprisoned by the British.

2. Piyali Phukan (…..-1830)

Organized an uprising against British rule in Assam.

Arrested and executed by the British in 1830 for his involvement in the revolt.

3. Maniram Dewan (1806–1858)

A tea planter and nationalist who opposed British economic exploitation.

Supported the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 and planned a revolt in Assam.

Captured and hanged by the British in Jorhat, 1858.

4. Kushal Konwar (1905–1943)

A freedom fighter who participated in the Quit India Movement (1942).

Accused of derailing a British military train.

Hanged by the British in Jorhat Jail in 1943, the only      Indian executed by hanging during the Quit India Movement.

5. Kanaklata Barua (1924–1942)

A young woman leader of the Quit India Movement in Assam.

Led a protest march in Gohpur, carrying the national flag towards a police station.

Shot dead by British police at the age of 17.

6. Gopinath Bordoloi (1890–1950)

First Chief Minister of Assam after independence.

Played a crucial role in ensuring Assam remained part of India.

Opposed British policies and advocated for Assam’s autonomy.

Awarded Bharat Ratna (1999) posthumously.

7. Tarun Ram Phukan (1877–1939)

Leader of the Non-Cooperation Movement in Assam.

Imprisoned by the British for leading protests against foreign rule.

Played a key role in promoting Swadeshi movements.

8. Chandraprabha Saikiani (1901–1972)

A nationalist and social reformer who fought for women’s rights.

Active in the Non-Cooperation Movement and worked with the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee.

Promoted education for women and worked against social evils like child marriage.

9. Ambikagiri Raichoudhury (1885–1967)

A nationalist poet and revolutionary.

Founder of Asom Jatiya Mahasabha, a nationalist organization.

Advocated for Assamese identity and cultural heritage during British rule.

10. Bhogeswari Phukanani (1885–1942)

A freedom fighter from Nagaon.

Led protests during the Quit India Movement.

Shot dead by British forces while holding the Indian national flag.

11. 1 Bishnu Prasad Rabha (1909–1969)

A cultural activist and freedom fighter.

Nicknamed ‘Kalaguru’ for his contributions to art and literature.

Supported armed resistance against British rule.

12. Jadav Chandra Sharma (1880–1942)

Played a significant role in the Civil Disobedience Movement in Assam.

Arrested multiple times for his nationalist activities.

13. Parbati Prasad Barua (1904–1964)

Actively participated in nationalist movements.

Used literature and drama to spread the message of freedom struggle.

14. Nabin Chandra Bordoloi (1875–1936)

Lawyer and politician involved in the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Arrested for resisting British policies in Assam.

List of Governors of Assam

According to the Constitution of India, each of its member states has a Governor. His term of office is five years. He is the constitutional head of the state. The following is a list of the Governors of Assam in order.

Name of Governor ……..Term

Henry Joseph Twynam….1938 – 1939

Robert Neil Reid….1939 – 1942

Andrew Gourlay Claw….1942- 1946

Rederick Chalmers Bourne….1946 – 1946

Henry Foley Knight….1946 – 1946

Andrew Gourlay Claw….1946 -1947

Mohammad Akbar Hydari….1947 –  1948

Ronald Fencis….1948 –  1949

Mr. Prakash….1949 -1950

Jairam Das Daulatram….1950 -1956

Syed Fazal Ali….1956 -1959

Chakreswar Prasad Sinha….1959 -1959

Mr. Prakash….1959 -1961

Satyawant Mallanna Srinagesh….1961 -1962

Vishnu Sahay….1962 -1968

Bej Kumar Nehru….1968 – 1970

PK Swamy…. 1970 -1971

Bej Kumar Nehru….1971 -1973

Lalan Prasad Singh….1973 -1981

Prakash Mehrotra….1981 -1984

Bhishma Narayan Singh….1984 – 1989

Haridev Joshi….1989 -1989

Anisetty Raghuvir….1989 – 1990

Devidas Tagore….1990 -1990

Loknath Mishra….1991 -1997

Srinivas Kumar Singha….1997 -2003

Ajay Singh….2003 – 2008

Shivcharan Mathur….2008 -2008

Syed Chibte Razi….2009 – 2009

Janaki Ballabh Patnaik….2009 – 2014

P Balakrishna Acharya….2014 –  2016

Banwarilal Purohit…. 2016 – 2017

Prof. Jagdish Mukhi…. 2017 – 2023

Gulab Chand Kataria….2023 – 2024

Lakshman Prasad Acharya…. 2024 – to the present.

The Chief Ministers of Assam

According to the Constitution of India, the leader of the majority party is appointed as the Chief Minister of a state in the Assembly elections. The following is a list of the Chief Ministers of Assam in order.

Names……………….Terms

Sir Syed Mohammad Chadullah….1937 – 1946

Gopinath Bardoli….1938 -1950

Bishnuram Medhi….1950 – 1957

Bimala Prasad Chaliha….1957 – 1970

Mahendra Mohan Chowdhury….970 – 1972

Sharat Chandra Singh….1972 – 1978

Rose Barbara March….1978 – 1979

Yogendra Nath Hazarika….1979 – 1979

Syeda Anwara Timur….1980 – 1981

Keshav Chandra Gogoi….1982 – 1982

Hitesh  war Saikia….1983 – 1985

Prafulla Kumar Mahanta….1985 – 1990

Hitesheswar Saikia….1991 – 1996

Bhumidhar Barman (Acting)….1996 – 1996

Praful Kumar Mahanta March….1996 – 2001

Tarun Gogoi ….2001 – 2016

Sarbananda Sonowal….2016- 2021

Himanta Bishwa Sarma ….2021- to the present.

Chapter-3: Literature & Culture of Assam

Presidents of the Assam Sahitya Sabha

The following is a list of the Presidents of the Assam Sahitya Sabha and the venues where the Annual Meetings were held by year.

Year…..President…………..Venue

1917    Padmanath Gohain Barua ….Shivsagar

1918    Chandradhar Barua….Goalpara

1919    Kaliram Medhi….Barepta

1920    Hemchandra Goswami….Tezpur

1923    Amritbhushan Deb Adhikari….Jorhat

1924    Kanaklal Barua….Dibrugarh

1924    Laxminath Bezbarua….Guwahati

1925    Rajnikant Bardoli….Nagaon

1926    Benudhar Rajkhowa…. Dhubri

1927    Tarun Ram Phukan….Goalpara

1929    Kamalakantha Bhattacharya….Jorhat

1930    Mofizuddin Hazarika….Golaghat

1931    Nagendra Narayan Chowdhury….Shivsagar

1933    Gyanadaviram Baruah….N. Lakhimpur

1934    Anand Chandra Agrawal….Mangoldoi

1936    Raghunath Chowdhury….Tezpur

1937    Krishna Kanta Sandikoi….Guwahati

1940    Maidul Islam Bora….Jorhat

1944    Nilmani Phukan….Shivsagar

1947    Nilmani Phukan….Dibrugarh

1950    Ambikagiri Roy Chowdhury….Margherita

1953    Surya Kumar Bhuyan….Shillong

1954    Naliniwala Devi….Jorhat

1955    Jatindranath Duwara….Guwahati

1956    Benudhar Sharma….Dhubri

1958    Padmadhar Chaliha….Tinsukia

1959    Atul Chandra Hazarika….Nagaon

1960    Trailokyanath Goswami….Mirza

1961    Trailokyanath Goswami….Goalpara

1963    Ratnakant Barkakati…. Nazira

1964    Mitradeo Mahant…. Digboi

1965    Dimbeswar Barua….Nalbari

1966    Binanda Chandra Barua….N Lakhimpur

1967    Nakul Chandra Bhuyan….Dibrugarh

1968    Gyan Nath Bora….Tezpur

1969    Anand Chandra Barua….Barepta

1970    Upendra Nath Lekharu….Dhing

1971    Tirthanath Sharma….Makum

1972    Hem Barua….Dhubri

1973    Giridhar Sharma….Rangia

1974    Maheshwar Neog….Mangaldai

1975    Satyendra Nath Sharma….Tittabor

1976    Yajneswar Sharma….Tihu

1977    Syed Abdul Malik….Abhayapuri

1978    Prasannalal Chowdhury….Golaghat

1979    Atul Chandra Barua….Shualkuchi

1980    Jatindranath Goswami….Raha

1981    Sitanath Brahmachowdhury….Tinsukia

1982    Sitanath Brahmachowdhury….Diphu

1983    Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya….Baigaon

1985    Yogesh Das….Bihpuria

1986    Biren Barkatki….Kampur

1987    Mahendra Bora….Pathshala

1988    Kirtinath Hazarika….Hailakandi

1989    Mahim Bora….Dumduma

1990  Naba Kanata Baruah ….Bishwanath  Chariali

1991    Nirmal Prabha Bardoli….Dudhanai

1992    Lakshyadhar Chowdhury….Goreswar

1993    Bhupen Hazarika….Sivsagar

1994    Leela Gogoi….Morigaon

1995    Hitesh Deka…. Sarthebari

1996    Laxminanda Bora….Bakakhat

1997    Nagen Saikia….Bilasipara

1998    Nagen Saikia….Howrah

1999    Chandraprasad Saikia….Hajo

(Since 1999, the term of office of the President of the Assam Sahitya Sabha has been extended to two years.)

2001    Homen Bargohain….Dibrugarh

2003    Birendra Nath….Lakhimpur

2005    Kanakasen Deka….Sipajhar

2007    Kanakasen Deka….Chapar

2009    Rangbang Terang….Dhemaji

2011    Rangbang Terang….Boithalkuchi

2013-2014       Imran Shah….Barepta Road

2015–2017      Dhrubajyoti Bora….Kaliabor

2018–2019      P Rajbongshi   Bardumsa….Raha

2020–2021      Kuladhar Saikia….Sualkuchi

2022–2023      Dr. S Kanta Hazarika  Narayanpur

2024–2025      Dr. B K Goswami ….Dadara

General Secretaries of the Assam Sahitya Sabha

The President is the head of the Assam Sahitya Sabha. After the President, the main person is the Secretary. The following is a list of the General Secretaries of the Assam Sahitya Sabha and the places where the Annual Meetings were held by year.

Venue Secretary ………….Term

Shivsagar         Sharat Chandra Goswami….1917-18

Goalpara          Padmanath Gohani Barua ….1918-19

Barepta            Satya Nath Bora….1919-20

Tezpur             Sharat Chandra Goswami….1920-23

Jorhat              Sharat Chandra Goswami….1923-24

Dibrugarh        Sharat Chandra Goswami ….1924-25

Guwahati        Sharat Chandra Goswami….924-25

Nagaon            Sharat Chandra Goswami….1924-26

Dhubri             Sharat Chandra Goswami ….1926-27

Goalpara          Purnananda Sharma Pathak …. 1927-28

Jorhat              Purnananda Sharma Pathak….1928-30

Golaghat         Kamalakantha Barua …. 1930-32

Shivsagar         Deveshwar Chaliha ….1932-33

N Lakhimpur   Deveshwar Chaliha….1933-34

Mangaldai       Chandradhar Barua….1934-36

Tezpur             Devananda Sharma ….1936-37

Guwahati        Rameshwar Barua….1937-39

Jorhat              Purnananda Sharma Pathak ….1940-44

Shivsagar         Dimbeswar Neog….1944-47

Dibrugarh        Muktanath Barua….1947-53

Margherita       Keshav Narayan DM 1950-53

Shillong           Atul Chandra Hazarika….11953-54

Jorhat              Atul Chandra Hazarika…. 1954-55

Guwahati        Atul Chandra Hazarika….1955-56

Dhubri             Paragdhar Chaliha ….1956-58

Tinsukia           Binanda Chandra Barua ….1958-59

Nagaon            Jatindra Nath Goswami ….1959-60

Mirza               Maheshwar Neog….1960-61

Goalpara          Maheshwar Neog….1961-63

Nazira             Maheshwar Neog ….1963-64

Digboi             Maheshwar Neog ….1964-65

Nalbari            Hariprasad Neog ….1965-67

Dibrugarh        Hariprasad Neog ….1967-68

Tezpur             Hariprasad Neog ….1968-69

Barepta            Syed Abdul Malik….1969-70

Dhing              Jatindra Nath Goswami….1970-71

Makum            Jatindra Nath Goswami ….1971-72

Dhubri             Jatindra Nath Goswami ….1972-73

Rangia             Nagen Saikia….1973-74

Mangaldai       Nagen Saikia….1974-75

Tittaborn         Nagen  Saikia….1975-76

Tihu                 Hemant Kumar Sharma …. 1976-77

Abhayapuri     Abdus Sattar….1977-78

Golaghat         Leela Gogoi….1978-79

Shualkuchi      Leela Gogoi….1979-80

Raha                Nagen Shaikia….1980-81

Tinsukia           Durgesh Sharma….1981-82

Diphu              Nagen Shaikia….1982-83

Bongaigaon     Nagen Shaikia….1984-85

Bihpuria          Praful C. Bhattacharya….1985-86

Kampur           Amal Rajkhowa….1986-87

Pathshala         Amal Rajkhowa ….1987-88

Hailakandi       Amal Rajkhowa…. 1988-89

Dumduma       Satish C Chowdhury…. 1989-90

B Chariali        Satish C Chowdhury ….1990-911

Dudhanai        Nahendra Padun….1991-92

Goreswar         Ramcharan Thakurya ….1992-93

Shivsagar         Ramcharan Thakurya…. 1993-94

Morigaon         Satish C Chowdhury ….1994-95

Sarthebari        Satish C Chowdhury…. 1995-97

Bilasipara        Shailen Das ….1997-98

Howrah           Shailen Das….1998-99

Hajo                Basanta Kumar Goswami ….1999-2001

Dibrugarh        Basanta Kumar Goswami…. 2001-2003

Lakhimpur       Jagdish Patgiri….2003-2005

Sipajhar           Jagdish Patgiri….2005-2007

Chapar             Pradeep Bhuyan….2007-2009

Dhemaji           Parmanand Rajbanshi….2009-2011

Dergaon          Parmanand Rajbanshi ….2011-2013

Barepta            Road Prad Tasa….2013-2015

Assamese Writers & Their Titles/Pseudonyms

Some of the Assamese poets and writers have received titles sometimes from the readership and sometimes from the government for their works. The following is a list of Assamese poets and writers who have received titles.

Name of Writer ………………Title

Srimanta Sankardeva….Jagat Guru

Laxminath Bezbarua…. Rasraj, Sahityarathi

Kamalakantha Bhattacharya….Agni Kabi

Brjanath Sarma …. Avinayacharya

Ambikagiri Roy Chowdhury…. Asom Keshari

Hem Barua ….Asom Gaurav

Nalinibala Devi ….Atindriyabadi Kabi

Ambeshwar Chetia Phukan….Kabita Konwar

Deveshwar Sarma ….Jananayak

Parvati Prasad Barua….Geetikabi

Bishnu Prasad Rava ….Kalaguru

Naveen Chandra Bardoloi ….Karmabir

Bhabananda Rajkhowa….Kharikajair Kabi

Matiram Bora….Lokapran

Amiya Kumar Das….Loknayak

Rudra Barua….Luit Konwar

Jyoti Prasad Agrawal….Rupkonwar

Anand Chandra Agrawal….Bhagoni Konwar

Madhava Kandali….Apramadi Kabi

Rajnikant Bardoloi ….Uponnayash Samrat

Syed Abdul Malik….Galpa Samrat

Yageshwar Sarma….Sahityacharya

Atul Chandra Sarma….Sahityacharya

Krishna Kanta Sandikoi….Pandit Prabar

Laxminath Phukan….Premar Kabi

Atul Chandra Hazarika….Tapobanor Kabi

Devakanta Barua….Kalangporiya Kabi

Maheshwar Neog….Sadasya Mahiyan

Paragdhar Chaliha….Seuj Konwar

Hiren Bhattacharya….Sugandhi Pakhilar Kabi

Raghunath Chowdhury….Bihagi Kabi

Nilmani Phukan…. Bagmibar/Kaka

Prasannalal Chowdhury…. Bidruhi Kabi

Jatindra Nath Duwara….Banaphulor Kabi

Anandiram Das …. Bankonwar

Anand Chandra Barua….Prem Aru Radalir Kabi

Chandra Kumar Agrawal….Pratimar Khanikar

Ganesh Chandra Gogoi….Paporir Kabi

Shailadhar Rajkhowa ….Nijarar Kabi

Satya Prasad Barua….Natya Pravakar

Phani Sharma….Natasurya

Binanda Chandra Barua….Dhani Kabi

Laxmidhar Sarma….Deshpran

Tarun Ram Phukan….Deshbhakta

Hemchandra Barua….Tyagbir

Mofizuddin Hazarika….Gyan-Malinir Kabi

Bhupen Hazarika….Sangeet Surya

Padmadhar Chaliha….Phulanir Kabi

Hem Barua….Kabyabhanu

First in Assamese Literature

Assamese is one of the richest languages in the modern Indian language family. The literature of this language is now rich enough to compete with other Indian languages and literatures. There are many poets and writers in the history of Assamese literature who have achieved the honour of being first in various branches of Assamese literature.

Field/Subject               Person

The first Assamese short story writer: Laxminath Bezbarua.

The first Assamese writer of Poem in Prose: Jatindranath Duwara.

The first Assamese prose writer: Bhattadeva.

The first book of Assamese poetry: Hem Swaraswati’s ‘Prahlad Charit’.

The first book of Assamese poetry to win the Sahitya Akademi Award: Jatindra Nath Duwara’s ‘Banful’.

First Assamese travel story: Birinchi Kumar Baruah’s ‘Switzerland Braman’.

The first Assamese novel based on an English novel: ‘Nirmal Bhakat’ by Rajnikant Bardol.

The first Assamese poet and writer of the Romantic era: Chandra Kumar Agrawala.

First Dictionary of Assamese: Miles Bronson’s  ‘A Dictionary in Assamese and English’.

First grammar of the Assamese language: Mr. Robinson’s ‘A Grammar of Assamese Language’.

First modern biography writer: Gunabhiram Baruah.

First Assamese Sonnet: Hem Chandra Goswami’s ‘Priyatmar Chithi’.

First Assamese weekly magazine: ‘Jayanti’ (1946).

First English-Assamese Dictionary Author: Smt. R.S. Ward.

First Assamese poet using Blank verse: Ramakant Chowdhury.

First translator of plays from Sanskrit into Assamese: Lambodar Bora (Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntala’).

 First play translated from English: ‘Bhrahmaranga’ (William Shakespeare’s ‘Comedy of Errors’).

First printer of the ‘Kirtan Ghosha’ of Sri Manta Sankardeva: Haribilas Agrawala.

The first Assamese printed history: Kashinath Tamuli Phukan’s ‘Assam Buranji’

The first complete book by an Assamese woman writer: Padmavati Devi Phuknani’s ‘Sudharma Upakhyan’

The first printed novel in Assamese: ‘Lahari’ by Padmanath Gohain Barua.

The first Assamese novel based on tribal life: ‘Miri Jiyari’ by Rajnikant Bardoloi.

The first truly historical novel: Laxminath Bezbaruah’s ‘Padum Kunwari’

The first Assamese character book writer:  Daityari Tagore.

The first Assamese astrological book : ‘Jyotish Puthi’.

The first examples of Assamese prose found in: Ankia plays of Sri Sankaradeva.

The first Assamese comic book: Laxminath Bezbarua’s ‘Kripabar Baruah’s Kakator Topala’

The first book of Mathematics in the Assamese language : Bakul Kaystha’s ‘Kitawat Manjari’ ( sixteenth century).

The first Assamese epistolic novel: Bishnu Kinkar Kalita’s ‘Chinta’.

The first Assamese detective novelist: Kumudeshwar Bar Tagore.

First Assamese Sahitya Academi Award-winning novel: ‘Iyaruingam’ by Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya.

The first Assamese comedy play : ‘Kaniar Kirtan’

The first printed book in Assamese: The Bible (printed in 1813).

The first Assamese writer to write about the Assamese language : Anandaram Dekial Phukan (book title- A Few Remarks on Assamese Language).

First Assamese daily newspaper: ‘Dainik Batari’ (1937).

The first English weekly newspaper edited by an Assamese editor: ‘Assam News’ (1882).

The first book of Assamese royal genealogies: ‘Banshavali of Samudra Narayan’ by Suryakhari Daivagya.

First Assamese satirical magazine: ‘Bihlani’.

First Assamese weekly magazine: ‘Navayug’ (1996).

The first Assamese book on general knowledge: ‘Janane’ by Saifuddin Ahmed.

The first three-day newspaper in the Assamese language: ‘Assam Batari’

The first Assamese novel to be made into a film: Rajnikant Barodoloi’s ‘Manomati’

First English novel translated into Assamese: ‘Jatrikar Yatra’ (translation of ‘Pilgrims Progress’ by John Banyon).

First novel translated from Bengali into Assamese: ‘Elokeshi Bashyaar Desh’ (translated by Mr. and Mrs. A K Garni).

First Assamese women’s magazine: ‘Ghar Jeuti’.

First book on agriculture: Narayan Chandra Barua’s ‘Krishitatba’

First Assamese agricultural magazine: ‘Assam Krishak’.

First Assamese student magazine: ‘Chatri Argha’.

First translator of ‘Ramayana’ into Assamese: Madhav Kandali.

The first newspaper in the Assamese language : ‘Arunodoi’

The first Assamese language writer of history: Haliram Dekial Phukan.

The first Assamese magazine published outside Assam : ‘Jonaki’

First Jnanpith Awardee Assamese Novel : ‘Mrityunjaya’ by Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya.

The first member of the Assam Sahitya Sabha: Krishnakanta Sandikoi.

The first editor of the Assam Sahitya Sabha magazine: Chandradhar Barua.

The first female President of the Assam Sahitya Sabha: Nalinibala Devi.

The first Assamese play based on the story of the Ramayana: Sankaradeva’s ‘Ramavijay’

The first satirical magazine in the Assamese language: ‘Cartoon’

The first mini-magazine in Assamese: ‘Bindu’.

The first Assamese to write a dictionary of the Assamese language : Jaduram Deka Barua.

The first Assamese song book: ‘Gitavali’.

The first book of Assamese music: Laxminath Bezbaruah’s ‘Sangeetha Kosh’ .

First Assamese woman writer: Padmavata Devi Phuknani.

The first book of fairy tales in the Assamese language: Eliza Brown’s ‘Sadhur Puthi’

The first play in the Assamese language : Sankardev’s ‘Chihnajatra’.

The first poetic play in Assamese language: Rukmini Haran (written by Sankardev). 0 0 0

First Assamese Woman in Different Fields

Below is a list of Assamese women who have achieved first place in various fields.

Field                       Person

First female graduates of Assam: Sukhalata Duwara and Sudhalata Duwara.

The first literary pensioner of Assam : Rajni Prabha Saikia.

First woman to study medicine in England: Nirmal Prabha Chaliha.

First M. B. Pass woman: Rajni Prabha Saikia.

First woman to win the Arjuna Award: Monalisa Barua (1987)

Recipient of National Award for Small Enterprises: Nirupama Baruah (1993).

‘Katha’ Puraskar Award winner: Mamoni Roysam Goswami (1993).

Recipient of Bharat Seva Award: Classical dancer Pushpa Bhuyan (1994).

Recipient of the title of Assam Sahitya Sabha: Dharmeshwari Devi Baruani (Kavya Bharati, 1954).

Imprisoned for freedom: Guneshwari Devi, Mukteshwari Devi (1921).

First best Actress in National Film: Malaya Goswami (in ‘Phiringoti’).

First  Assamese film actress from East Pakistan: Eva Achao.

Chief Health Officer, North East Frontier Railway: Dr. Bani Bhattacharya.

First Professor, University of Guwahati: Leela Devi.

Firtst Ph. D. in Geography: Dwipti Das.

First Sahitya Academi Award winner: Nalinibala Devi.

First National Small Industries Award winner: Nirupama Baruah (1939).

First Guwahati High Court Judge: Mira Sarma (1989).

First winner of the Jamuna Lal Bajaj Award: Amal Prabha Saad (1980).

First woman President of the Assam Sahitya Sabha: Nalinibala Devi (1954).

First Woman Chief Minister of Assam: Syeda Anowara Timur (1980).

First woman Principal of College: Rajbala Das.

First N.C.S: Shuchibrata Roy Chowdhury.

First Assembly Minister: Mavis Dane.

First woman author: Padmavati Devi Phuknani.

First Union Minister: Renuka Devi Barkatki (Education and Social Welfare).

First recipient of the Padma Shri: Nalinibala Devi.

First  heroine going to battlefield: Mula Gavru.

First woman I.A. S: Parul Das (1974).

First  Ph. D. in London: Dr. Tilottoma Gogoi.

First Ph. D. in France: Dr. Kamala Roy.

First Assamese in Different Discipline

Many individuals from Assam have achieved the honour of being first in various fields at the state or international level. Below is a list of them.

Discipline/ Field ………… Person

First graduate of South Assam: Jagannath Barua.

First graduate of lower Assam: Anandaram Barua.

First tea farmer of Assam: Jagannath Barua.

First Assamese to become President of India: Fakruddin Ali Ahmed.

First President of the Indian National Congress: Devkant Barua (1975).

First Assamese to become a Governor: Bishnuram Medhi (Tamil Nadu).

First I. C. S : Anandaram Barua.

First Ph. D: Moydul Islam Bora.

First All India Football Federation President: Narul Amin.

First Doctorate in Law: Jagdish Chandra Medhi.

First Justice of the Supreme Court of India: Parvati Kumar Goswami.

First Guwahati High Court Judge: Haliram Deka (1961).

First Vice-Chancellor, University of Guwahati: Krishnakanta Sandikoi (1948).

First Vice-Chancellor of University outside Assam: Sharat Kumar Dutt (Kurukshetra University).

First Chief Minister of Independent Assam: Gopinath Bardoloi.

First Scientist who set foot in the Arctic region: Raghav Chandra Deka (1987).

First Doctorate of Guwahati University: Satyendra Nath Sarma, Maheshwar Neog.

First Military Heroes: Utpal Barua (1965).

First Arjuna Award winner: Bhageshwar Barua (1966).

First Padma Bhushan Awardee: Bimala Prasad Chaliha.

First Sangeet Natak Academy Awardee: Sri Sri Mitradev Mahant (1961).

First person whose image appeared on the postal stamp: Laxminath Bezbarua.

First Sahitya Academi Award: Jatindra Nath Duwara (1955).

First Recipient of the Jnanpith Award: Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya (1979).

First Education in England: Anandaram Dekial Phukan.

First Assamese filmmaker: Jyoti Prasad Agrawal.

First Minister in the Union Cabinet: Surendra Nath Buragohain.

First Engineering Pass in England: Bali Narayan Bora.

First Doctorate in Assamese Linguistics: Dr. Banikant Kakati.

First Assamese to do independent business abroad: Vulanath Barua.

First  Assamese to buy a ship: Manik Chandra Barua.

First film Director: Pramthesh Barua.

First Assamese pilot: Mahananda Das.

First Assamese in Indian cinema: Dr. Bhupen Hazarika.

First best Music Director Awardee in Bangladesh Films: Dr. Bhupen Hazarika.

First Inventor of the Assamese typewriter: Hariprasad Barua.

First Principal of Government Higher Secondary School: Keshab Nath Phukan.

First All India Science Awardee: Khanindra Baruah (1993).

First Soviet Union Nehru Prize winner: Surendra Mohan Das.

First All India Durga Ratan Award winner: Kirtinath Hazarika (1986).

First All India Sankardev Award winner: Kirtinath Hazarika and Bhupen Hazarika (1987).

First All India Goenka Award: Kirtinath Hazarika (1987).

First Canadian Ocofa’ Awardee: Dr. Ishwar Chandra Chakraborty.

First ‘Assam Valley Award’ recipient: Dr. Vebandranath Saikia (1993).

First martyr of the language movement: Ranjit Barpujari (1960).

First receipient of ‘All India Dadasaheb Falke Award’: Dr. Bhupen Hazarika (1992).

First  Assamese actor in Bengali film : Pramthesh Barua (film title ‘Takay Kini Golam’).

Winners of the Sri Sankaradeva Award

The Government has been awarding the ‘Srimanta Sankardev Award’ since 1986 in recognition of outstanding contributions to the fields of Indian arts, culture, literature and journalism. The winner of the award is presented with Rs. 1 lakh and a gold medal. ¸Here is a list of the winners of this award to date.

Person…………………Year

Kirtinath Hazarika…….1986

Bhupen Hazarika…….1987

Satyajit Ray…….1988

Maheshwar Neog…….1989

Kapila Vatsayana…….1990

Satyendra Nath Sharma…….1991

Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar…….1992

Satya Prasad Barua &

Gangubai Hangal…….1993

Mahendra Bora…….1994

Syed Abdul Malik…….1995

Debash Chandra Sanal…….1996

Kelucharan Mahapatra…….1997

Debandra Nath Saikia…….1998

Amjad Ali Khan…….1999

Sonaram Chutia…….2000

Acharya Ilaram Das……. 2001

Indira Miri…….2002

Habib Tanvir…….2003

Narayan Deb Goswami &

Parbin Sultana…….2004

BG Varghese…….2005

Keswananda Deb Goswami…….2006

Homen Bargohain…….2007

Sarmila Tagore…….2008

Basistha Deva Sarma…….2017

List of Prominent Assamese Magazines

Gariyoshi– Prominent literary magazine.

Sadin – Weekly magazine published by Assam Tribune group.

Prantik – Fortnightly literary-cultural magazine.

Xadin – Political and cultural magazine.

Rupkar – Historic film and cultural magazine.

Raijor Batori – People’s news and views magazine.

Xophura – Children’s magazine.

Jonaki – Historical magazine by Asam Sahitya Sabha,

Bismoi – Popular fiction and entertainment magazine.

Rangmela– Cultural and entertainment magazine.

List of Prominent Assamese Newspapers

Asomiya Pratidin – Leading Assamese daily.

Dainik Janambhumi  – One of the oldest Assamese newspapers.

Amar Asom – Daily published from Guwahati.

Dainik Agradoot – Prominent daily newspaper.

Dainik Asam – Part of Assam Tribune Group.

Ajir Asom – Daily Assamese newspaper.

Niyomiya Barta – Daily newspaper with wide circulation.

Sadin– Weekly newspaper, also known for investigative journalism.

Purbanchal Prahari – Assamese daily published from Guwahati.

Raijor Batori – Progressive community-based newspaper.

Axom Bani – Popular weekly Assamese newspaper.

List of Famous Assamese Books

Title…………………………Author

Kirtan Ghosha………Srimanta Sankardeva

Namgosha………Sri Madabdeva

Burhi Aair Sadhu………Lakshminath Bezbaroa

Miri Jiyori………Rajanikanta Bordoloi

Jibonor Batot………Homen Borgohain

Abhiyatri………Nirupama Borgohain

Ashanta Electron………Indira Goswami

Tejor Andhar………Homen Borgohain

Papori………Nirupama Borgohain

Deo Langkhui………Rita Chowdhury

Aghari Atmar Kahini………Sayed Abdul Malik

Jatra………Harekrishna Deka

Sugandhi Pakhila………Hiren Bhattacharya

Sagor Dekhsa………Debkanta Barua

Sarathi………Satyanath Bora

Pragyar Sadhana………Homen Borogohain

Kapiliporiya Sadhu………Navakanta Barua

Presidents of Bodo Sahitya Sabha

Bodo Sahitya Sabha was established in 1952 to develop Bodo language and literature. The following are some of the notable presidents:

Term               President

1952–1955      Joy Bhadra Hagjer (Founding President)          1955–1957        Samar Brahma Choudhury

1957–1960      Satish Chandra Basumatary

1960–1963      Kamal Kumar Brahma

1963–1966      Trailokya Nath Brahma

1966–1970      Nandeswar Narzary

1970–1973      Bineswar Brahma

1973–1976      Dambarudhar Brahma

1976–1979      Upendra Nath Brahma (Known as ‘Bodofa’)

1979–1982      Manik Chandra Muchahary

1982–1985      Pramod Chandra Brahma

1985–1988      Pramod Boro (later BTR Chief)

1988–1991      Mihiniswar Basumatary

1991–1994      Dr. Kameswar Brahma

1994–1997      Kamal Kumar Brahma

1997–2000      Hemendra Nath Brahma

2000–2003      Dr. Tarani Debnath

2003–2006      Dr. Subung Basumatary

2006–2009      Brajendra Nath Brahma

2009–2012      Dr. Kameswar Brahma (second term)

2012–2015      Pradip Kumar Brahma

2015–2018      Toren Boro

2018–2021      Taren Boro

2021–present   Toren Boro.

Cabinet Ministers of Assam

Minister…………………Portfolios

1. Himanta Biswa Sarma – Chief Minister; Home, Personnel, Public Works Department (Buildings, Roads, Highways); all unallocated departments |
2. Ranjeet Kumar Das – Panchayat & Rural Development; General Administration; Judicial; Tourism
3. Kaushik Rai – Food, Public Distribution & Consumer Affairs; Mines & Minerals; Barak Valley Development
4. Jayanta Malla Baruah – Public Health Engineering; Housing & Urban Affairs
5.  Atul Bora (AGP) – Agriculture; Horticulture; Excise; Border Area Development; Implementation of Assam Accord                                                    |
6. Krishnendu Paul – Animal Husbandry & Veterinary; Fisheries; Public Works (Roads)
7. Nandita Garlosa – Power; Cooperation; Mines & Minerals; Indigenous & Tribal Faith & Culture
8. Jogen Mohan – Co-operation; Transport; Hill Areas Development
9. Urkhao Gwra Brahma (UPPL) – Handloom, Textiles & Sericulture; Soil Conservation; Welfare of Bodoland
10. Chandra Mohan Patowary – Act East Policy Affairs; Environment & Forests; Parliamentary Affairs; Water Resources; Information, Public Relations, Printing & Stationery
11. Keshab Mahanta (AGP) – Revenue & Disaster Management; Information Technology; Science, Technology & Climate Change                                                   |
12. Bimal Bora – Industries, Commerce & Public Enterprises; Cultural Affairs; (sometimes Sports & Youth Welfare)
13. Prasanta Phukan – Power; Skill, Employment & Entrepreneurship; Medical Education & Research
14. Ranoj Pegu – Education (Elementary, Secondary, Higher); Tribal Welfare (Plain)
15. Ashok Singhal – Health & Family Welfare; Irrigation
16. Rupesh Gowala – Labour Welfare; Welfare of Tea Tribes & Adivasis; Home (Prisons, Civil Defense)
17. Ajanta Neog – Finance; Women & Child Development
18. |Pijush Hazarika – Social Justice & Empowerment; Information & Public Relations; Water Resources.

Popular Tourist Places in Assam

Natural Beauty & Hill Stations

1. Kaziranga National Park – World Heritage Site, home to the one-horned rhinoceros
2. Manas National Park – UNESCO Natural World Heritage site and biosphere reserve
3. Majuli Island – World’s largest river island on the Brahmaputra
4. Haflong – Only hill station in Assam, known for scenic beauty
5. Dipor Bil – Freshwater lake and birdwatcher’s paradise near Guwahati
6. Dibru-Saikhowa National Park – Known for feral horses and riverine biodiversity

Historical & Cultural Sites

7. Sivasagar – Historic capital of the Ahom kingdom (Rang Ghar, Talatal Ghar, Sivasagar Tank)
8. Hajo – An ancient pilgrimage site for Hindus, Muslims, and Buddhists
9. Tezpur – Historic town with ruins, Agnigarh hill, and scenic parks
10. Madanmohan Temple – Beautiful architecture in western Assam
11. Charaideo Maidam – Ahom royal burial mounds (India’s “Pyramids”)

Spiritual Places

12. Kamakhya Temple (Guwahati) – Famous Shakti Peeth and tantric center
13. Umananda Temple – Located on the smallest river island in the world, Umananda Island
14. Navagraha Temple – Temple of nine celestial bodies in Guwahati
15. Sualkuchi – “Manchester of Assam”, known for silk weaving and Assamese culture

Rivers & Scenic Spots

16. Brahmaputra River Cruises – River cruise experiences with scenic and cultural immersion
17. Bogamati – Beautiful picnic spot near Indo-Bhutan border
18. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary – Dense population of one-horned rhinos, near Guwahati

Cultural and Educational Spots

19. Srimanta Sankardev Kalakshetra (Guwahati) – Cultural museum of Assamese heritage
20. Assam State Museum (Guwahati) – Rich archaeological and cultural displays

Part-II India

(Assam to World-G K)

Chapter 1: Introduction to India

Geographical Features: Introductory

India, a vast and diverse country in South Asia, is marked by a wide range of geographical features that shape its climate, culture, biodiversity, and way of life. From the towering Himalayas in the north to the coastal plains in the south, and from the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains to the arid Thar Desert in the west and lush forests in the northeast, India’s landscape is incredibly varied. The country is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast, contributing to its long coastline. These physical features not only define India’s natural beauty but also influence its agriculture, population distribution, and economic activities.

Location and Size of India

India is located in South Asia, between 8°4’N to 37°6’N latitude and 68°7’E to 97°25’E longitude.

It is the 7th largest country in the world by area and the 2nd most populous.

It is bounded by the Himalayas in the north and surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal on three sides.

Major Physical Divisions of India

India is divided into six main physical regions:

(a) The Northern Mountains

Includes the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world.

Divided into three ranges: Himadri, Himachal, and Shiwalik.

Source of major rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra.

(b) The Northern Plains

Formed by alluvial deposits of rivers like Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra.

Extremely fertile and densely populated.

Ideal for agriculture.

(c) The Peninsular Plateau

A stable, ancient landmass made of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Includes the Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur Plateau, and Malwa Plateau.

Rich in minerals and resources.

(d) The Indian Desert

 Located in Rajasthan, also known as the Thar Desert.

Sandy, dry region with extreme temperatures and scarce rainfall.

(e) The Coastal Plains

Stretch along the eastern and western coasts.

Divided into the Eastern Coastal Plain and the Western Coastal Plain.

Fertile, with river deltas and important ports.

(f) The Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.

Strategically important and rich in biodiversity.

Major Rivers of India

Himalayan Rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra.

Peninsular Rivers: Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada, and Kaveri.

List of States of India

State………Capital………Area (sq. km)

Andhra Pradesh…..Amaravati…..162,968

Arunachal Pradesh…..Itanagar ….. 83,743

Assam…..Dispur…..78,438

Bihar…..Patna …..  94,163

Chhattisgarh…..Raipur…..135,192

Goa…..Panaji …..3,702

Gujarat…..Gandhinagar…..196,024

Haryana…..Chandigarh….. 44,212

Himachal Pradesh…..Shimla…..55,673

Jharkhand…..Ranchi…..79,716

Karnataka….. Bengaluru…..191,791

Kerala…..Thiruvananthapuram…..38,863

Madhya Pradesh…..Bhopal…..308,252

Maharashtra …..Mumbai…..307,713

Manipur….. Imphal…..22,327

Meghalaya…..Shillong…..22,429

Mizoram…..Aizawl…..21,081

Nagaland…..Kohima…..16,579

Odisha…..Bhubaneswar…..155,707

Punjab…..Chandigarh…..50,362

Rajasthan…..Jaipur…..342,239

Sikkim…..Gangtok…..7,096

Tamil Nadu…..Chennai…..130,058

Telangana…..Hyderabad…..112,077

Tripura…..Agartala…..10,486

Uttar Pradesh…..Lucknow…..243,286

Uttarakhand…..Dehradun…..53,483

West Bengal…..Kolkata…..88,752

 Union Territories (UTs) of India

U Territory……Capital …..Area (sq. km)

A &N Islands…..  Port Blair…..8,249

Chandigarh…..Chandigarh…..114

Dadra &Nagar Haveli

& Daman and Diu…..Daman….. 603

Delhi…..New Delhi…..1,483

Jammu & Kashmir…..Srinagar (Summer)

                          …Jammu (Winter)… 55,538

Ladakh….. Leh…..59,146

Lakshadweep  Kavaratti …..32

Puducherry…..Puducherry…..479

Notes:

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu were merged into a single Union Territory in January 2020.

Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh became Union Territories on October 31, 2019, after the reorganization of the former state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Land areas are approximate and may vary slightly according to official updates.

Political & Administrative Structure of India

India follows a federal parliamentary democratic system governed by the Constitution of India. The structure is divided into three main levels:

1. Union Government (Central Government): It governs the entire country and is based in New Delhi. It includes the President, Prime Minister, and Council of Ministers, and is supported by the Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha).
2. State Governments: India has 28 states, each with its own government, Governor, Chief Minister, and State Legislature (unicameral or bicameral). States have autonomy in certain areas as per the Constitution.
3. Local Governments: At the grassroots level, there are Panchayati Raj Institutions in rural areas and Municipalities in urban areas. They handle local administration and development.

The administrative structure is divided into districts, sub-divisions, and blocks, headed by civil servants under the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). This multi-tiered system ensures governance from the national to the village level. 0 0 0

Chapter 2: Indian History

Periods of Indian History

Ancient India (c. 2500 BCE – 700 CE)

Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–1500 BCE): One of the world’s earliest urban civilizations (Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro).

Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE): Arrival of Aryans; development of Vedas, early Hinduism.

Mahajanapadas & Maurya Empire (600–185 BCE): Rise of kingdoms and empires; Mauryan Empire under Ashoka.

Gupta Period (c. 320–550 CE): Golden Age of India – progress in science, literature, and arts.

Medieval India (c. 700–1700 CE)

Early Medieval Period (700–1200 CE): Regional kingdoms like Cholas, Palas, and Rajputs.

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526): Muslim rulers established dynasties (Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Lodi).

Mughal Empire (1526–1707): Established by Babur; reached its height under Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb.

Modern India (c. 1700 – 1947 CE)

Decline of Mughal Empire & Rise of Regional Powers (1707–1757): Marathas, Sikhs, and others gained power.

British Rule (1757–1947): After Battle of Plassey (1757), the British East India Company, and later the British Crown, ruled India.

Freedom Struggle (1857–1947): Revolt of 1857, rise of Indian National Congress, Gandhi’s non-violent movement led to independence.

Post-Independence India (1947–Present)

Republic of India (1950): India became a sovereign, secular, democratic republic.

Modern Developments: Industrialization, Green Revolution, Economic Liberalization (1991), and advancements in science and technology.

Major Dynasties & Kings of Ancient India

Pre-Mauryan Period:

Vedic Period (c. 1500 BCE – 600 BCE):

Tribal chieftains and kings such as Sudas (Bharata tribe), Divodasa, and others

Mahajanapada Period (c. 600 BCE – 321 BCE)

Prominent kingdoms: Magadha, Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, etc.

Kings of Magadha:

Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara, Ajatshatru

Shishunaga Dynasty: Shishunaga, Kalashoka

Nanda Dynasty: Mahapadma Nanda, Dhana Nanda

Maurya Dynasty (321 BCE – 185 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya (founder)

Bindusara

Ashoka the Great

Dasaratha

Brihadratha Maurya (last ruler, killed by Pushyamitra Shunga)

Shunga Dynasty (185 BCE – 73 BCE)

Pushyamitra Shunga (founder)

Agnimitra

Vasumitra

Devabhuti (last ruler)

Kanva Dynasty (73 BCE – c. 28 BCE)

Vasudeva Kanva (founder)

Bhumimitra

Narayana

Susarman (last ruler)

Satavahana Dynasty (1st cen BCE – 3rd cen CE)

Simuka (founder)

Satakarni I

Gautamiputra Satakarni

Vasishthiputra Pulumavi

Yajna Sri Satakarni

Indo-Greek Kingdoms (2nd cen BCE – 1st cen CE)

Demetrius I

Menander I (Milinda)

Kushan Dynasty (c. 1st cen CE – 3rd cen CE)

Kujula Kadphises (founder)

Vima Kadphises

Kanishka the Great

Vasudeva I

Western Kshatrapas (c. 35 CE – 405 CE)

Nahapana

Rudradaman I

Rudrasena III

Gupta Dynasty (c. 320 CE – 550 CE)

Sri Gupta (founder)

Chandragupta I

Samudragupta

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)

Kumaragupta I

Skandagupta

Vakataka Dynasty (c. 250 CE – 500 CE)

Vindhyashakti (founder)

Pravarasena I

Rudrasena II

Harshavardhana’s Rule (c. 606 – 647 CE)

Harsha or Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty (ruled from Thanesar and later Kannauj)

Pallava Dynasty (3rd cen CE – 9th cen CE)

Simhavarman (early ruler)

Mahendravarman I

Narasimhavarman I (conqueror of Vatapi)

Nandivarman II

Chalukya Dynasty (c. 543 – 753 CE)

Pulakeshin I (founder)

Pulakeshin II (defeated Harsha)

Vikramaditya I

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (c. 753 – 982 CE)

Dantidurga (founder)

Krishna I (built Kailasa Temple at Ellora)

Amoghavarsha I

Krishna III

Post-Gupta Regional Kingdoms

Pushyabhuti Dynasty

Harshavardhana

Maukharis

Ishanavarman, Avantivarman

Major Dynasties of Medieval India

Early Medieval Dynasties (c. 700 – 1206 CE)

Palas (8th–12th century)

      Region: Bengal and Bihar

      Founder: Gopala

      Famous Ruler: Dharmapala, Devapala

Notable: Patronage of Nalanda and Vikramashila universities; Buddhist revival.

Pratiharas (8th–11th century)

      Region: Rajasthan and parts of North India

      Founder: Nagabhata I

      Famous Ruler: Mihira Bhoja

      Notable: Defenders against Arab invasions.

Rashtrakutas (8th–10th century)

      Region: Deccan (Maharashtra, Karnataka)

      Founder: Dantidurga

      Famous Ruler: Amoghavarsha

Notable: Patronage of art and architecture; built the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.

Cholas (9th–13th century)

      Region: Tamil Nadu

      Founder: Vijayalaya Chola

      Famous Ruler: Rajaraja I, Rajendra I

Notable: Naval expeditions to Southeast Asia; magnificent temples like Brihadeeswara.

Chalukyas (6th–12th century)

Two Phases: Badami Chalukyas (Early), Western Chalukyas (Later)

      Region: Karnataka and Maharashtra

      Famous Rulers: Pulakeshin II, Vikramaditya VI

Paramaras (9th–14th century)

      Region: Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)

      Famous Ruler: Bhoja

      Notable: Patron of learning and literature.

Gahadavalas (11th–12th century)

      Region: Kannauj and Varanasi

      Famous Ruler: Govindachandra

      End: Conquered by Muhammad Ghori

Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)

Slave Dynasty (1206–1290)

      Founder: Qutb-ud-din Aibak

      Famous Ruler: Iltutmish

      Notable: Construction of Qutub Minar started.

Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)

      Founder: Jalal-ud-din Khilji

      Famous Ruler: Alauddin Khilji

      Notable: Market reforms; expansion into South India.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)

      Founder: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq

      Famous Ruler: Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq

      Notable: Ambitious but failed policies.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)

      Founder: Khizr Khan

      Notable: Weak rule, Delhi shrank in power.

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)

      Founder: Bahlul Lodi

      Famous Ruler: Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi

      End: Defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526)

III. Regional Kingdoms (Post-Delhi Sultanate, 14th–16th century)

1. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)

      Founders: Harihara and Bukka (Sangama Dynasty)

      Region: Southern India (Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu)

      Famous Rulers: Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva Dynasty)

      Notable: Flourishing of art, architecture, and trade.

2. Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527)

      Region: Deccan

      Founder: Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah

Split into: Five Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar)

1. Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

Although it marks the beginning of Modern Indian History, the early Mughals are sometimes considered part of the late medieval period.

      Founder: Babur (defeated Ibrahim Lodi, 1526)

      Famous Mughal Emperors:

      Humayun

      Akbar – Greatest ruler, religious tolerance, administration.

      Jahangir

      Shah Jahan – Taj Mahal.

      Aurangzeb – Expansion, but religious orthodoxy.

Modern India: Timeline

18th Century

      1757 – Battle of Plassey: British East India Company defeats Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah; marks beginning of British rule.

      1764 – Battle of Buxar: British defeat combined forces of Indian rulers, gaining control over Bengal.

19th Century

      1857 – First War of Independence / Sepoy Mutiny: Major rebellion against British rule; suppressed but led to administrative changes.

      1858 – End of East India Company’s rule; British Crown takes direct control.

      1885 – Indian National Congress (INC) founded.

20th Century

      1905 – Partition of Bengal by the British; triggers Swadeshi Movement.

      1919 – Jallianwala Bagh Massacre; Rowlatt Act passed.

   1920-22 – Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.

      1930 – Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha); Civil Disobedience Movement begins.

      1942 – Quit India Movement launched by Gandhi.

      1947 – India gains independence from British rule on August 15; Partition of India and Pakistan.

      1950 – Republic of India established on January 26 with adoption of the Constitution.

Post-Independence (1950–Present)

      1962 – Indo-China War.

      1965 & 1971 – Indo-Pak Wars; 1971 war leads to creation of Bangladesh.

      1975–77 – Emergency declared by Indira Gandhi.

      1991 – Economic Liberalization reforms introduced.

      1998 – Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests.

      2008 – Mumbai Terror Attacks.

      2014 – Narendra Modi becomes Prime Minister.

      2019 – Abrogation of Article 370 (special status of Jammu & Kashmir).

      2020–21 – COVID-19 Pandemic affects India.

      2023 – India hosts G20 Summit in New Delhi.

Freedom Movements in India

The Indian freedom struggle was a long and multifaceted movement aimed at ending British colonial rule. It evolved over time, involving mass movements, revolts, and campaigns led by different leaders and organizations.

1. Early Resistance (1757–1857)

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Indian rulers, peasants, and soldiers resisted British control through local uprisings. The most significant was the Revolt of 1857, also called the First War of Independence, which marked the beginning of organized resistance.

2. Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)

The Indian National Congress (INC) was formed in 1885 to voice Indian demands for political rights and reforms. Initially moderate in its approach, it gradually became more assertive in demanding self-rule.

3. Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement (1905–1908)

The British partitioned Bengal in 1905, triggering widespread protest. Indians launched the Swadeshi Movement, boycotting British goods and promoting Indian industries.

4. Home Rule Movement (1916–1918)

Launched by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant, this movement demanded self-governance and inspired political awareness across the country.

5. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

Mahatma Gandhi led this nationwide campaign urging Indians to boycott British institutions, schools, law courts, and titles, promoting non-violent resistance.

6. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934)

Launched with the historic Dandi March in 1930, this movement called on Indians to defy British laws non-violently, especially the salt tax.

7. Quit India Movement (1942)

Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942, demanding an immediate end to British rule. This was a mass protest that saw widespread arrests and repression.

8. Role of Revolutionary Activities

Revolutionary groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), led by Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and others, used armed resistance against British officials and institutions.

9. Role of Subhas Chandra Bose and INA

Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Indian National Army (INA) to fight the British with the help of Japan during World War II. His slogan “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” inspired many.

10. Final Phase and Independence (1946–1947)

Post-World War II, the British faced mounting pressure to leave India. The naval mutiny of 1946, international support, and internal unrest forced the British to grant India independence on 15 August 1947.

Freedom Fighters of India

India’s freedom struggle saw the involvement of countless brave men and women who sacrificed their lives, comfort, and careers for the independence of the nation. Below is a list of some of the most notable freedom fighters, categorized by their roles and contributions:

Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948): Leader of the Indian independence movement who advocated non-violence and Satyagraha. Led major movements like Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India.

Subhas Chandra Bose (1897–1945): Founder of the Indian National Army (INA). Believed in armed struggle and gave the famous slogan – “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964): A prominent Congress leader, first Prime Minister of independent India, close associate of Gandhi, and a key figure in framing modern India.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920): Known as “The Father of Indian Unrest”. Gave the slogan –  “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.”

Bhagat Singh (1907–1931): Revolutionary nationalist who was involved in the killing of a British officer and bombing the Central Legislative Assembly. Executed at the age of 23.

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi (1828–1858): One of the leading figures of the 1857 Revolt. She fought bravely against the British and became a symbol of resistance.

Chandrashekhar Azad (1906–1931): Revolutionary leader associated with the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Chose to die by his own bullet rather than be captured.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875–1950): Prominent leader in the Indian National Congress. Known as the “Iron Man of India” for uniting the princely states after independence.

Annie Besant (1847–1933): Irish-born activist who played a major role in the Home Rule Movement and supported Indian self-rule.

Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928): One of the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’ trio, he died after being injured during a protest against the Simon Commission.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915): Moderate nationalist and mentor of Gandhi. Worked through constitutional means for reforms.

Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917): Known as the “Grand Old Man of India”, he was the first Indian to become a British MP and analyzed the economic drain under British rule.

Ashfaqulla Khan (1900–1927): Revolutionary who participated in the Kakori Train Robbery and was hanged by the British.

Aruna Asaf Ali (1909–1996): Prominent in the Quit India Movement. Hoisted the Indian flag at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay during the 1942 protest.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956): Architect of the Indian Constitution and a strong advocate for the rights of Dalits and social justice.

These are only a few among the thousands who contributed to India’s independence. Many lesser-known heroes also played crucial roles at the local and national levels. 0 0 0

Chapter-3: Indian Politics

The Presidents of India

According to the Constitution of India, the President is the constitutional head of the Republic of India. His term of office is five years. Below is a list of the Presidents of India in order.

Name                                      Term

Rajendra Prasad                      26 Jan 1950 – 13 May,1962

Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan       May 13, 1962 – May 13,1967

Zakir Hussain              May 13, 1967 – May 3,1969

Barahgiri Vankatgiri (acting)  3 May, 1969 – 20 July,1969

Mohd Hedayatullah (acting)   July 20, 1969 – Aug 24,1969

Barahgiri Vankatgiri   Augt 24, 1969 – Aug 24,1974

Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed          Aug 24, 1974 – Feb 11,1977

BD Jatti (in-charge)                11 Feb, 1977 – 25 July,1977

Neelam Sanjeev Reddy          July 25, 1977 – July 25,1982

Giani Jail Singh                       July 25, 1982 – July 25,1987

R Vankataraman                     July 25, 1987 – July 25,1992

Shankar Dayal Sharma            July 25, 1992 – July 25,1997

KR Narayanan                        July 25, 1997 – July 25,2002

APJ Abdul Kalam                   July 25, 2002 – July 24,

Pratibha Patil               July 25, 2007 – July 25,2007

Pranab Mukherjee                   July 25, 2012 – 2017.

Ram Nath Kovind                  25 Jul 2017      25 Jul 2022

Droupadi Murmu                    25 Jul 2022      Incumbent.

The Vice-Presidents of India

According to the Constitution of India, a Vice-President is appointed to assist the President. He is the ex-officio President of the Rajya Sabha. His term of office is five years. Below is a list of Vice Presidents of India in order.

Name                                      Term

Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan       1952 -1962

Zakir Hussain              1962 -1967

Barahgiri Bhankatgiri  1967 -1969

GS Pathak                               1969 -1974

BD Jatti                                   1974 -1979

Mohammad Hedayatullah      1979 – 1984

R Vankataraman                     1984 -1987

Shankar Dayal Sharma            1987 -1992

KR Narayanan                        1992 -1997

Shri Krishna Kant                   1997 -2002

Bhru Singh Shekhawat           2002 -2007

Mohd Hamid Ansari   2007 – 2017

                                     (served 2 consecutive terms).

1. Venkaiah Naidu 2017 – 2022

Jagdeep Dhankhar                  2022 – Incumbent

Prime Ministers of India

According to the Constitution of India, the leader of the party that wins the Lok Sabha elections is elected Prime Minister of India. His term of office is five years. Below is a list of Prime Ministers of India in order.

Names                                     Term

Jawaharlal Nehru                    Aug 15, 1947 – May 27,1964

Gulzarilal Nanda                     27 May 1964 – 9 June,

Lal Bahadur Shastri                6 June 1964 – 11 Janu,1964

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)        11 Janu 1966 – 24 Janu,1966

Indira Gandhi             24 January 1966 – 24 March,

Morarji Desai              24 Mar 1977 – 14 Janu,1977

Charan Singh              July 24, 1979 – Janu 14,1980

Indira Gandhi             14 Janu 1980 – 31 Oct,1984

Rajiv Gandhi               31 Oct 1984 – 1 Dec, 1989

Bishwanath P Singh    2 Dec 1989 – 10 Nov,1990

Chandra Shekhar                    Nov 10, 1990 – June 21,1991

PV Narasimha Rao                 21 June 1991 – 16 May,1991

Atal Bihari Vajpayee  16 May 1996 – 1 June,1996

HD Deve Gowda                    1 June 1996 – 21 April,1997

Inder Kumar Gujral                April 21, 1997 – Mar 19,1998

Atal Bihari Vajpayee  Mar 19, 1998 – May 22,2004

Manmohan Singh                    May 22, 2004 – May 26,2014

Narendra Modi                       26 May 2014 – to date.

Chief Election Commissioners of India

There is an Election Committee to conduct elections in the Center and its constituent states of India. Below is a list of Chief Election Commissioners so far.

Name                                      Term

Sukumar Sen               1950-1958

KBK Sundaram                      1958-1967

SP Sen Burma             1967-1972

Nagendra Singh                      1972-1973

1. Swaminathan 1973-1977

SL Sadakar                             1977-1982

RK Trivedi                              1982-1990

VS Ramdevi                           1990-1990

TN Sheshan                             1990-1996

MS Gill                                   1996-2001

1. M. Lingdu 2001-2004

TS Krishnamurthy                   2004-2005

BB Tendon                             2005-2006

1. Gopalaswamy 2006-2009

Naveen Chawla                       2009-2010

1. Owai Qureshi 2010 -2012

VS Sampath                            2012-2015

H S Bhrama                            2015-2015

Nasim Jaidi                             2015-2017

Achal Kuamr Jyoti                  2017-2018

Om Prakash Rawat                 2018-2018

Sunil Arora                              2018-2021

Sushil Chandra                        2021-2022

Rajiv Kumar                            2022-present

Chief Justices of India

Name                                      Term

1. Harilal J. Kania 1950 to 1951
2. M. Patanjali Sastri 1951 to 1954
3. Mehr Chand Mahajan 1954
4. B. K. Mukherjea 1954 to 1956
5. S. R. Das 1956 to 1959
6. B. P. Sinha 1959 to 196
7. P. B. Gajendragadkar 1964 to 1966
8. A. K. Sarkar 1966
9. K. Subba Rao 1966 to 1967
10. K. N. Wanchoo 1967 to 1968
11. M. Hidayatullah 1968 to 1970
12. J. C. Shah 1970 to 1971
13. S. M. Sikri 1971 to 1973
14. A. N. Ray 1973 to 1977
15. M. H. Beg 1977 to 1978
16. Y. V. Chandrachud 1978 to 1985
17. P. N. Bhagwati 1985 to 1986
18. R. S. Pathak 1986 to 1988
19. E. S. Venkataramiah 1988 to 1990
20. S. Mukharji 1990 to 1991
21. Ranganath Misra 1990 to 1991
22. K. N. Singh 1991
23. M. H. Kania 1991 to 1992
24. L. M. Sharma 1992 to 1993
25. M. N. Venkatachaliah 1993 to 1994
26. A. M. Ahmadi 1994 to 1997
27. J. S. Verma 1997 to 1998
28. M. M. Punchhi 1998
29. A. S. Anand 1998 to 2001
30. S. P. Bharucha 2001 to 2002
31. B. N. Kirpal 2002
32. G. B. Pattanaik 2003
33. V. N. Khare 2003 to 2004
34. S. Rajendra Babu 2004
35. R. C. Lahoti 2004 to 2005
36. Y. K. Sabharwal 2005 to 2007
37. K. G. Balakrishnan 2007 to 2012
38. S. H. Kapadia 2010 to 2012
39. Altamas Kabir 2012 to 2013
40. P. Sathasivam 2013 to 2014
41. R. M. Lodha 2014
42. H. L. Dattu 2014 to 2015
43. T. S. Thakur 2015 to 2011
44. J. S. Khehar 2017
45. Dipak Misra 2017 to 2018
46. Ranjan Gogoi 2018 to 2019
47. Sharad Arvind Bobde 2019 to 2021
48. N. V. Ramana 2021 to 2022
49. U. U. Lalit 2022
50. D. Y. Chandrachud 2022 to Present

Presidents of the Indian National Congress

1. Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee – 1885 (Bombay)
2. Dadabhai Naoroji – 1886 (Calcutta), 1893 (Lahore), 1906 (Calcutta)
3. Badruddin Tyabji – 1887 (Madras
4. George Yule – 1888 (Allahabad
5. Sir William Wedderburn – 1889 (Bombay),

                                                1910 (Allahabad

6. Pherozeshah Mehta – 1890 (Calcutta)
7. Anandamohan Bose – 1891 (Nagpur)
8. W. C. Bonnerjee – 1892 (Allahabad)
9. Alfred Webb – 1894 (Madras)
10. Surendranath Banerjee – 1895 (Poona)
11. Rahimtulla M. Sayani – 1896 (Calcutta)
12. C. Sankaran Nair – 1897 (Amravati)
13. Ananda Charlu – 1898 (Madras)
14. Romesh Chunder Dutt – 1899 (Lucknow)
15. N. G. Chandavarkar – 1900 (Lahore)
16. D. E. Wacha – 1901 (Calcutta)
17. S. Subramania Iyer – 1902 (Ahmedabad)
18. Lal Mohan Ghose – 1903 (Madras)
19. Henry Cotton – 1904 (Bombay)
20. Gopal Krishna Gokhale – 1905 (Varanasi)
21. Dadabhai Naoroji – 1906 (Calcutta)
22. Rash Behari Ghosh – 1907 (Surat), 1908 (Madras)
23. Madan Mohan Malaviya – 1909 (Lahore), 1918 (Delhi)

24. Bishan Narayan Dar – 1911 (Calcutta)
25. R. N. Mudholkar – 1912 (Bankipore)
26. Nawab Syed Muhammad Bahadur – 1913 (Karachi)
27. Bhupendra Nath Bose – 1914 (Madras)
28. Satyendra Prasanna Sinha – 1915 (Bombay)
29. Ambika Charan Mazumdar – 1916 (Lucknow)
30. Annie Besant – 1917 (Calcutta)
31. B. N. Dhar – 1919 (Amritsar)
32. Lala Lajpat Rai – 1920 (Calcutta – special session)
33. C. Vijayaraghavachariar – 1920 (Nagpur)
34. Hakim Ajmal Khan – 1921 (Ahmedabad)
35. Chittaranjan Das – 1922 (Gaya)
36. Abul Kalam Azad – 1923 (Delhi)
37. M. A. Ansari – 1927 (Madras)
38. Motilal Nehru – 1919 (Amritsar), 1928 (Calcutta)
39. Jawaharlal Nehru – 1929 (Lahore), 1936 (Lucknow),       1937 (Faizpur)
40. Vallabhbhai Patel – 1931 (Karachi)
41. Rajendra Prasad – 1934 (Bombay), 1939 (Tripuri)
42. Subhas Chandra Bose – 1938 (Haripura), 1939 (Tripuri, re-elected but resigned)
43. Pattabhi Sitaramayya – 1948 (Jaipur)
44. Purushottam Das Tandon – 1950 (Nasik)
45. Jawaharlal Nehru – 1951 (New Delhi)
46. U. N. Dhebar – 1955 (Avadi)
47. Indira Gandhi – 1959 (Delhi), 1978 (New Delhi)
48. Sanjiva Reddy – 1960 (Nagpur)
49. K. Kamaraj – 1964 (Bhubaneswar)
50. Nijalingappa – 1968 (Hyderabad)
51. Jagjivan Ram – 1970 (Patna)
52. Devkant Baruah – 1975 (Chandigarh)
53. Rajiv Gandhi – 1985 (Bombay)
54. P. V. Narasimha Rao – 1991 (Tirupati)
55. Sitaram Kesri – 1996 (Calcutta)
56. Sonia Gandhi – 1998 to 2017 (multiple sessions)
57. Rahul Gandhi – 2017 (New Delhi)
58. Mallikarjun Kharge – 2022 (present INC President)

Ranks of Indian Army Officers

The Indian Army is mainly divided into three divisions, namely: Army, Navy and Air Force. Below are the ranks of each force in order.

(a) Land Forces

1. General.
2. Lieutenant General
3. Major General
4. Brigadier
5. Colonel
6. Lieutenant Colonel
7. Major
8. Captain
9. Lieutenant Captain
10. Second Lieutenant.

(b) The Navy

1. The Admiral
2. Vice Admiral
3. Rear Admiral
4. Commodore
5. Captain
6. Commander
7. Lieutenant Commander
8. Lieutenant
9. Sub-Lieutenant
10. Acting Sub-Lieutenant.

(c) Air Force

1. Air Chief Marshal
2. Air Marshal
3. Air Vice Marshal
4. Air Commodore
5. Group Captain
6. Wing Commander
7. Squadron Leader
8. Fvight Lieutenant
9. Fving Officer
10. Pilot Officer. 0 0 0

Chapter-4: Indian Film Industry

Indian Cinema: Introduction

Bollywood, the popular name for the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), is the largest segment of Indian cinema and one of the most influential film industries in the world. The term “Bollywood” is a blend of “Bombay” and “Hollywood”, though it refers specifically to Hindi cinema, not the entire Indian film industry. Over the decades, Bollywood has evolved from silent films to grand musicals with vibrant song and dance sequences, reflecting Indian society, culture, politics, and changing tastes.

The Silent Era (1913–1930): Indian cinema began with Dadasaheb Phalke’s ‘Raja Harishchandra’ in 1913, which is considered India’s first full-length feature film. It was a silent film based on a mythological story. In the early years, mythological and historical themes dominated. The films were silent, in black and white, and heavily influenced by Indian epics and theatre.

The Talkie Revolution (1931–1940): The first Indian talkie, ‘Alam Ara’, directed by Ardeshir Irani, was released in 1931. It marked the beginning of sound films in India and brought about a revolution. The film included seven songs, establishing the musical format that would become a hallmark of Bollywood. During this period, films started addressing social issues such as untouchability, poverty, and women’s rights.

The Golden Era (1940s–1960s): This period is often regarded as the golden age of Bollywood. Filmmakers like Raj Kapoor, Guru Dutt, Mehboob Khan, and Bimal Roy created timeless classics that combined artistic expression with social realism. Iconic films like ‘Mother India’ (1957), ‘Pyaasa’ (1957), and ‘Mughal-e-Azam’ (1960) emerged during this era. Music played a central role, with playback singers like Lata Mangeshkar and Mohammad Rafi becoming household names. The stories often revolved around family, romance, and patriotism.

The Masala Era (1970s–1980s): In the 1970s, Bollywood entered the masala film era, blending action, drama, romance, comedy, and music. Amitabh Bachchan rose to stardom as the “Angry Young Man” in films like ‘Zanjeer’ and ‘Deewaar’. Filmmakers such as Manmohan Desai and Prakash Mehra pioneered this genre. Social inequality, corruption, and injustice were common themes. The 1980s, however, saw a decline in quality, with formulaic stories and melodrama dominating the screen.

The Modern Era (1990s–2000s): The 1990s marked a revival in Bollywood with the rise of new stars like Shah Rukh Khan, Aamir Khan, and Salman Khan. Romantic dramas and family-centric films became popular, with ‘Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge’ (1995) being a landmark film. The industry also began adopting advanced technology and started catering to the Indian diaspora worldwide. Music albums of films often became hits even before the release of the films.

The Global Bollywood (2010s–Present): In recent years, Bollywood has become increasingly global. Films such as ‘Dangal’, ‘PK’, ‘Bajrangi Bhaijaan’, and ‘RRR’ have earned acclaim both in India and internationally. Bollywood has embraced digital platforms, experimented with genres, and addressed contemporary issues. The industry has also started producing content-driven cinema with filmmakers like Anurag Kashyap, Zoya Akhtar, and Shoojit Sircar leading the way. At the same time, big-budget spectacle films continue to draw large audiences.

Bollywood, with its rich legacy and diverse storytelling, remains a powerful medium of entertainment and social commentary. It mirrors India’s journey through time and continues to evolve with changing tastes and technologies. As it expands its global reach, Bollywood retains its distinct flavor, rooted in song, emotion, and drama, making it unique in the world of cinema.

Regional Film Industries of India

India is a land of immense linguistic and cultural diversity, and this is vividly reflected in its cinema. While Bollywood (Hindi-language cinema) is the most widely known, India is also home to several vibrant regional film industries. These industries produce films in various languages including Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Assamese, Odia, and more. Each regional cinema has its own unique identity, history, themes, and fan following.

Telugu Cinema (Tollywood): Based in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the Telugu film industry is one of the largest in India. Its hub is in Hyderabad. Known for its grand storytelling, action, and visual effects, Telugu cinema has produced major blockbusters like ‘Baahubali’, ‘RRR’, and ‘Pushpa’. Prominent actors include N. T. Rama Rao, Chiranjeevi, Mahesh Babu, Allu Arjun, and Prabhas. It has gained international recognition for its technical brilliance and mass appeal.

Tamil Cinema (Kollywood): Based in Chennai, Tamil cinema is one of the oldest film industries in India. It has produced legendary filmmakers such as K. Balachander, Mani Ratnam, and Shankar. Themes in Tamil films range from social reform to fantasy, and from rural stories to high-budget science fiction. Notable actors include M. G. Ramachandran, Rajinikanth, Kamal Hasan, Vijay, and Suriya. The industry is known for blending artistry with entertainment.

Malayalam Cinema (Mollywood): Based in Kerala, Malayalam cinema is praised for its strong narratives, realistic characters, and artistic excellence. It has produced critically acclaimed films and is known for tackling complex themes with sensitivity. Directors like Adoor Gopalakrishnan and Shaji N. Karun have earned international recognition. Actors such as Mohanlal, Mammootty, Fahadh Fasil, and Parvathy have contributed to its growth. Malayalam films are often rooted in the socio-political realities of Kerala.

Kannada Cinema: Kannada cinema is based in Karnataka and has steadily grown in both content and popularity. Known for its innovative storytelling and strong performances, it has produced films like ‘KGF’, which gained nationwide fame. Veteran actors like Rajkumar and Vishnuvardhan, and contemporary stars like Yash and Rakshit Shetty have been instrumental in its development. The industry is increasingly making its mark across India.

Bengali Cinema: Based in Kolkata, Bengali cinema has a rich artistic and intellectual legacy. It is known for its contribution to Indian parallel cinema. Legendary filmmaker Satyajit Ray, whose ‘Apu Trilogy’ is globally renowned, belongs to this industry. Other noted directors include Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak, and Rituparno Ghosh. Bengali films often explore themes of identity, existentialism, love, and human struggles. It balances mainstream entertainment with artistic depth.

Marathi Cinema: Marathi cinema, based in Maharashtra, has been influential in shaping Indian cinema. It gave India its first feature film, ‘Raja Harishchandra’ by Dadasaheb Phalke. In recent years, Marathi films like ‘Court’, ‘Swas’, and ‘Natarang’ have gained national awards and critical acclaim. The industry often focuses on social issues, human values, and traditional culture. Actors like Nana Patekar and directors like Nagraj Manjule have gained widespread fame.

Punjabi Cinema (Pollywood): Punjabi cinema, based in Punjab, is known for its vibrant music, comedy, and family dramas. The industry has seen significant growth in the last two decades, with popular films like ‘Carry On Jatta’, ‘Angrej’, and ‘Qismat’. It reflects Punjabi culture, traditions, and humor. Prominent actors include Diljit Dosanjh, Gippy Grewal, and Neeru Bajwa. The films often appeal to both domestic and international Punjabi-speaking audiences.

Gujarati Cinema (Dhollywood): Gujarati cinema has witnessed a revival in recent years. Earlier known for mythological and devotional films, it now includes social dramas, comedies, and romances. Films like ‘Chhello Show’ and ‘Hellaro’ have brought national attention. The industry promotes Gujarat’s rich culture and folklore.

Assamese Cinema (Jollywood): Assamese cinema is one of the oldest regional industries in India. The first Assamese film, ‘Joymoti’ (1935), was made by Jyoti Prasad Agarwala. The industry is known for its artistic storytelling and has produced filmmakers like Jahnu Barua. Despite financial challenges, Assamese films continue to win national and international awards.

Odia Cinema (Ollywood): Based in Odisha, Odia cinema produces films in the Odia language. The first Odia film, ‘Sita Bibaha’, was released in 1936. The industry includes devotional films, family dramas, and folklore-inspired stories. While not as commercially strong, it plays an important role in preserving Odia culture and language.

Other Regional Cinemas: Apart from the major industries, several other regional cinemas such as Bhojpuri, Manipuri, Konkani, Tulu, and Chhattisgarhi have their own audience base and continue to grow. These cinemas serve their communities by promoting language, culture, and local issues.

The regional film industries of India are a testament to the country’s cultural richness and linguistic diversity. Each brings its own color, rhythm, and narrative style to the broader canvas of Indian cinema. Together, they contribute to making India one of the most prolific film-producing countries in the world.

Famous Cinema Actors of Indian Cinema

Indian cinema is home to a vast and diverse talent pool of actors and actresses who have captivated audiences for decades. These performers come from various regional film industries including Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kanada, Bengali, Marathi, and others. Their contribution to Indian cinema, both artistically and commercially, has earned them national and international acclaim.

Amitabh Bachchan: Often called the “Shahenshah” of Bollywood, Amitabh Bachchan is known for his deep voice, towering screen presence, and powerful performances in films like ‘Sholay’, ‘Deewaar’, ‘Paa’, and ‘Piku’. He has acted in hundreds of films since the 1970s.

Rajinikanth: A legendary figure in Tamil cinema, Rajinikanth enjoys a cult following across India. Known for his unique style and charisma, he has starred in iconic films such as ‘Baasha’, ‘Enthiran’, and ‘Kabali’.

Kamal Hasan: A versatile actor from Tamil cinema, Kamal Hasan is also a director and writer. He is known for his experimental roles in films like ‘Nayagan’, ‘Indian’, and ‘Dasavatharam’.

Shah Rukh Khan: Often referred to as the “King of Bollywood,” Shah Rukh Khan has ruled Hindi cinema since the 1990s with blockbuster romantic and dramatic roles in films like ‘Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge’, ‘My Name is Khan’, and ‘Chak De! India’.

Amir Khan: Known for his perfectionism and socially relevant themes, Amir Khan has acted in and produced successful films like ‘Lagaan’, ‘Dangal’, ‘PK’, and ‘Tare Zameen Par’.

Salman Khan: A dominant Bollywood star, Salman Khan is known for his mass appeal and hit films such as ‘Bajrangi Bhaijaan’, ‘Sultan’, and ‘Kick’. He also hosts popular television shows.

Mohanlal: A giant in Malayalam cinema, Mohanlal is known for his natural acting in films like ‘Drishyam’, ‘Vanaprastham’, and ‘Iruvar’.

Mammootty: Another legend of Malayalam cinema, Mammootty has appeared in over 400 films and is known for both commercial and artistic roles.

Chiranjeevi: A superstar of Telugu cinema, Chiranjeevi is known for his energetic performances in action and dance. His famous films include ‘Indra’ and ‘Tagore’.

Hrithik Roshan: Known for his dancing skills and physique, Hrithik has acted in films like ‘Koi Mil Gaya’, ‘Jodhaa Akbar’, and ‘War’.

Ranbir Kapoor: A younger generation actor known for performances in ‘Barfi!’, ‘Rockstar’, and ‘Sanju’, Ranbir is among the most acclaimed contemporary stars.

Yash: A Kanada actor who gained national fame with the ‘KGF’ series. Yash represents the growing power of South Indian cinema in pan-Indian appeal.

Famous Actresses of Indian Cinema

Madhubala: An icon of the golden era, Madhubala was admired for her beauty and acting in classics like ‘Mughal-e-Azam’ and ‘Chalti Ka Naam Gaadi’.

Nargis: Known for her soulful roles in ‘Mother India’ and ‘Barsaat’, Nargis was a leading lady in early Hindi cinema.

Sridevi: A legendary actress who worked in Tamil, Telugu, and Hindi films, Sridevi is known for her versatility in movies like ‘Mr. India’, ‘Chandni’, and ‘English Vinglish’.

Rekha: Rekha is celebrated for her elegance and powerful performances in films such as ‘Umrao Jan’, ‘Silsila’, and ‘Khoon Bhari Mang’.

Hema Malini: Popularly known as the “Dream Girl,” she has starred in several hit films like ‘Sholay’, ‘Seeta Aur Geeta’, and ‘Baghban’.

Kajol: Famous for her roles in romantic and family dramas, Kajol starred in ‘Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge’, ‘Kuch Kuch Hota Hai’, and ‘My Name is Khan’.

Deepika Padukone: Known for her beauty and acting skills, Deepika has delivered strong performances in ‘Padmavat’, ‘Piku’, and ‘Chennai Express’.

Priyanka Chopra Jonas: An international star who began her career in Bollywood with films like ‘Fashion’, ‘Barfi!’, and ‘Don’, Priyanka is now active in Hollywood as well.

Vidya Balan: Renowned for her women-centric films, Vidya is known for movies like ‘Kahani’, ‘The Dirty Picture’, and ‘Tumhari Sulu’.

Alia Bhatt: A prominent young actress in Bollywood, Alia has gained praise for her acting in films such as ‘Raazi’, ‘Gully Boy’, and ‘Gangubai Kathiawadi’.

Samantha Ruth Prabhu: A leading actress in Telugu and Tamil cinema, Samantha is admired for her performances in ‘Theri’, ‘Mahanati’, and the web series ‘The Family Man’.

Nayanthara: Dubbed the “Lady Superstar” of South Indian cinema, Nayanthara has played strong lead roles in films like ‘Aramm’, ‘Maya’, and ‘Raja Rani’.

Internationally Award-Winning Indian Films

Indian cinema has gained global recognition over the years with many films receiving prestigious awards at international film festivals such as Cannes, Berlin, Venice, Toronto, and the Academy Awards (Oscars). These films have showcased India’s artistic depth, cultural richness, and storytelling traditions to a worldwide audience.

1. Pather Panchali (1955) – Directed by Satyajit Ray.

      Awards:

      Best Human Document, Cannes Film Festival (1956)

      Vatican Award, Rome

      Best Film, San Francisco International Film Festival

      Golden Lion nomination, Venice Film Festival

2. Mother India (1957) – Directed by Mehboob Khan

      Awards:

      Nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards (1958)

      Grand Prix at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival

3. Salaam Bombay! (1988) – Directed by Mira Nair.

      Awards:

      CamEra d’Or, Cannes Film Festival

      Nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards (1989)

      BAFTA Award for Best Film not in the English Language

4. Lagaan (2001) – Directed by Ashutosh Gowariker.

      Awards:

      Nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards (2002)

      Audience Award, Locarno International Film Festival

      Special Jury Prize, Bergen International Film Festival

5. The Lunchbox (2013) – Directed by Ritesh Batra.

Awards:

      Critics Week Viewers Choice Award, Cannes Film Festival

      Grand Rail d’Or Award

      Nominated for BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language

6. Court (2014) – Directed by Chaitanya Tamhane.

      Awards:

      Best Film, Venice Film Festival (Horizons category)

      Best Feature Film, Indian National Film Awards

      International Critics’ Prize (FIPRESCI), Vienna

7. Masan (2015) – Directed by Neeraj Ghaywan.

      Awards:

      FIPRESCI Prize and Prix de l’Avenir (Un Certain Regard section), Cannes Film Festival

      Promoted as a new voice in Indian parallel cinema

8. Village Rockstars (2017) – Directed by Rima Das

      Awards:

      Best Feature Film, Indian National Film Awards

      Screened at Toronto International Film Festival

      India’s official entry to the Oscars

9. Gully Boy (2019) – Directed by Zoya Akhtar

      Awards:

      Best Asian Film at Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival

      Screened at Berlin International Film Festival

      India’s official entry to the Oscars

10. RRR (2022) – Directed by S. S. Rajamouli

      Awards:

      Best Original Song (‘Naatu Naatu’), Academy Awards (2023)

      Golden Globe for Best Original Song

      Best Director and Best Foreign Language Film, Critics Choice Awards

11. All That Breathes (2022) – Directed by Shaunak Sen

      Awards:

      Grand Jury Prize, Sundance Film Festival

   Golden Eye Award for Best Documentary, Cannes Film Festival

      Nominated for Best Documentary Feature, Academy Awards

12. The Elephant Whisperers (2022) – Directed by Kartiki Gonsalves

      Awards:

      Academy Award for Best Documentary Short (2023)

13. Koozhangal (Pebbles) (2021) – Directed by P. S. Vinothraj

      Awards:

      Tiger Award, International Film Festival Rotterdam

 

Chapter 5: Indian Economy

Sectors of Indian Economy

The Indian economy is divided into different sectors based on various criteria such as Primary Sector,  Secondary Sector and Tertiary Sector, Here is a categorized list:

1. Primary Sector

      Agriculture

      Animal Husbandry

      Forestry

      Fishing and Aquaculture

      Mining and Quarrying

2. Secondary Sector

      Manufacturing Industries

      Construction

      Food Processing

      Textile and Garment Industry

      Cement, Steel, and Automobile Industries

3. Tertiary Sector (Service Sector)

      Banking and Finance

      Education

      Healthcare

      Transport and Communication

      Information Technology (IT) and Software Services

      Retail and Trade

      Tourism and Hospitality

      Entertainment and Media

Indian Economy Sectors Based on Working Conditions

1. Organised Sector

      Registered Companies

      Government Services

      Public Sector Enterprises

      Large Private Enterprises

2. Unorganised Sector

      Small Shops and Vendors

      Home-based Industries

      Casual Labour

      Street Hawkers and Daily Wage Workers

3. Public Sector

      Government-owned and operated

      Examples: Indian Railways, ONGC, LIC

4. Private Sector

      Owned and managed by individuals or companies

      Examples: Tata Group, Reliance Industries, Infosys

5. Consumer Goods Sector

      Food and Beverages

      Personal Care Products

      Electronics and Appliances

6. Capital Goods Sector

      Machinery

      Tools and Equipment

      Infrastructure Components

Nationalised Banks of India

1. Punjab National Bank (PNB)
2. Bank of Baroda (BoB)
3. Bank of India (BoI)
4. Canara Bank
5. Union Bank of India
6. Indian Bank
7. Indian Overseas Bank (IOB)
8. UCO Bank
9. Bank of Maharashtra
10. Central Bank of India
11. Punjab & Sind Bank

Note: State Bank of India (SBI) is not included in the nationalised banks list because it was nationalised earlier in 1955 by acquiring the Imperial Bank of India.

After mergers announced by the Government in 2019 and 2020, the number of nationalised banks came down to 12 Public Sector Banks (PSBs), which include SBI and the 11 above.

Merged or Dissolved Banks of India

      Some banks that were once nationalised have now  merged with others. For example:

1. Allahabad Bank – merged with Indian Bank
2. Syndicate Bank – merged with Canara Bank
3. Andhra Bank & Corporation Bank – merged with Union Bank of India
4. Oriental Bank of Commerce & United Bank of India – merged with Punjab National Bank.

Five-Year Plans of India: Periods

1st Plan: 951–1956 – Focus on agriculture, irrigation, and energy. Harrod–Domar Model.

2nd Plan: 1956–1961 – Industrialization and heavy industries. Based on Mahalanobis Model.

3rd Plan:1961–1966 – Focus on self-reliant economy. Failed due to wars & drought.

lan Holiday: 1966–1969 – Annual Plans due to economic crisis and wars (1962 & 1965).

4th Plan:  1969–1974 – Growth with stability and self-reliance.

5th Plan:  1974–1978 – Focus on poverty removal and self-employment (Garibi Hatao).

Rolling Plan: 1978–1980 – Introduced by Janata Govt; later discontinued by Congress Govt.

6th Plan: 1980–1985 – Emphasis on economic liberalization and poverty alleviation.

7th Plan: 1985–1990 – Focus on employment, productivity, and social justice.

Annual Plans:1990–1992 – Due to political instability and economic crisis.

8th Plan: 1992–1997 – Start of liberalization, privatization, globalization (LPG reforms).

9th Plan: 1997–2002 – Focus on growth with social justice and equity.

10th Plan: 2002–2007 – Target 8% GDP growth; focus on development and governance.

11th Plan: 2007–2012 – Theme: “Faster and More Inclusive Growth”.

12th Plan: 2012–2017 – Theme: “Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable Growth”.

Note: After 12th Plan: Discontinuation of Five-Year Plans.

From 2017 onwards, Five-Year Plans were  discontinued.

The Planning Commission was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

Planning is now based on three-year action plans, seven-year strategy papers, and fifteen-year vision documents.

Chapter-6: Miscellaneous

Surnames (Nicknames) of Indian States

1. Assam – Tea Capital of India
2. Punjab – Granary of India / Land of Five Rivers
3. Haryana – Green Land of India
4. Himachal Pradesh – Land of Gods (Dev Bhoomi)
5. Uttarakhand – Abode of the Gods / Dev Bhoomi
6. Rajasthan – Land of Kings
7. Gujarat – Jewel of Western India
8. Maharashtra – Gateway of India (also refers to Mumbai)
9. Goa – Pearl of the Orient
10. Kerala – God’s Own Country
11. Tamil Nadu – Land of Temples
12. Karnataka – Cradle of Indian Engineering / Silicon Valley of India (refers to Bengaluru)
13. Andhra Pradesh – Rice Bowl of India
14. Telangana – Seed Bowl of India
15. West Bengal – Cultural Capital of India
16. Odisha – Soul of Incredible India
17. Jharkhand – Land of Forests
18. Chhattisgarh – Rice Bowl of Central India
19. Bihar – Land of Buddha
20. Uttar Pradesh – Heartland of India / The Hindi Heartland
21. Madhya Pradesh – Heart of India
22. Sikkim – Organic State of India
23. Nagaland – Land of Festivals
24. Mizoram – Land of the Hill People
25. Manipur – Jewel of India
26. Meghalaya – Abode of Clouds
27. Tripura – Queen of the North-East
28. Arunachal Pradesh – Land of the Rising Sun

Surnames of Indian Cities and Places

1. Mumbai – Financial Capital of India / City of Dreams
2. Delhi – Capital City / City of Rallies
3. Bengaluru (Bangalore) – Silicon Valley of India / IT Capital of India
4. Hyderabad – City of Pearls
5. Kolkata – City of Joy
6. Chennai – Detroit of India
7. Ahmedabad – Manchester of the East
8. Surat – Diamond City of India
9. Jaipur – Pink City
10. Jodhpur – Blue City
11. Udaipur – City of Lakes
12. Amritsar – Holy City of the Sikhs
13. Varanasi – Spiritual Capital of India
14. Lucknow – City of Nawabs
15. Agra – City of Taj
16. Pune – Oxford of the East
17. Bhopal – City of Lakes
18. Indore – Cleanest City of India
19. Nagpur – Orange City
20. Raipur – Rice Bowl of Chhattisgarh
21. Patna – Ancient City of Learning
22. Ranchi – City of Waterfalls
23. Shillong – Scotland of the East
24. Aizawl – City of Hills
25. Panaji (Panjim) – Party Capital of India (refers to Goa’s overall image)

Surnames of Tourist Spots and Landmarks

1. Taj Mahal (Agra) – Symbol of Eternal Love
2. Qutub Minar (Delhi) – Tower of Victory
3. Sun Temple (Konark) – Black Pagoda
4. Charminar (Hyderabad) – Arc de Triomphe of the East
5. Golden Temple (Amritsar) – Mecca of Sikhs
6. Meenakshi Temple (Madurai) – Southern Temple Wonder
7. Dal Lake (Srinagar) – Jewel in the Crown of Kashmir
8. Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand) – Floral Wonderland of India
9. Ranthambore (Rajasthan) – Tiger Paradise of India
10. Kaziranga National Park (Assam) – Home of the One-Horned Rhino

First Indians in Different Fields or Disciplines

First in Politics and Governance

1. First President of India – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
2. First Vice President of India – Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
3. First Prime Minister of India – Jawaharlal Nehru
4. First Woman Prime Minister of India – Indira Gandhi
5. First Woman President of India – Pratibha Patil
6. First Woman Governor of an Indian State – Sarojini Naidu (Uttar Pradesh)
7. First Indian to become Governor-General of Independent India – C. Rajagopalachari
8. First Deputy Prime Minister of India – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
9. First Chief Election Commissioner of India – Sukumar Sen
10. First Lok Sabha Speaker – Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar

First in Science and Technology

1. First Indian Scientist to win a Nobel Prize – C. V. Raman (Physics, 1930)
2. First Indian in Space – Rakesh Sharma (1984)
3. First Woman Scientist in ISRO – Dr. Tessy Thomas (known as Missile Woman of India)
4. First Indian to receive Bharat Ratna for scientific contributions – C. V. Raman
5. First Indian Satellite – Aryabhata (1975)
6. First Indian Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences – Amartya Sen (1998)

C First in Literature and Arts

1. First Indian to win Nobel Prize in Literature – Rabindranath Tagore (1913)
2. First Indian Author to win Booker Prize – Arundhati Roy (for ‘The God of Small Things’, 1997)
3. First Indian Feature Film – ‘Raja Harishchandra’ (Directed by Dadasaheb Phalke, 1913)
4. First Indian Talkie Film – ‘Alam Ara’ (1931)
5. First Indian Actress in a Talkie Film – Zubeida (in ‘Alam Ara’)
6. First Indian to receive Dadasaheb Phalke Award – Devika Rani (1969)

First in Sports

1. First Indian to win an Individual Olympic Medal – K. D. Jadhav (Wrestling, 1952)
2. First Indian Woman to win an Olympic Medal – Karnam Malleswari (Weightlifting, 2000)
3. First Indian to win a Gold Medal in Olympics – Abhinav Bindra (Shooting, 2008)
4. First Indian to win a Grand Slam Title – Mahesh Bhupathi (French Open, 1997 – Doubles)
5. First Indian Cricketer to score a Test Triple Century – Virender Sehwag
6. First Indian Formula One Driver – Narain Karthikeyan
7. First Indian Chess Grandmaster – Viswanathan Anand

First in Defence and Armed Forces

1. First Commander-in-Chief of Indian Army – General K. M. Cariappa
2. First Indian Air Chief Marshal – Subroto Mukherjee
3. First Indian Naval Chief – Vice Admiral R. D. Katari
4. First Woman to Lead a Parade at Republic Day – Captain Tania Shergill

First in Law and Judiciary

1. First Chief Justice of India – Harilal Kania
2. First Woman Judge of Supreme Court – Justice M. Fathima Beevi
3. First Attorney General of India – M. C. Setalvad
4. First Woman Chief Justice of a High Court – Leila Seth

First in Education and Institutions

1. First Indian University – University of Calcutta (1857)
2. First Woman to Graduate in India – Kadambini Ganguly
3. First Indian to Join the Indian Civil Services (ICS) – Satyendranath Tagore

First in Awards and International Recognition

1. First Bharat Ratna Awardees – C. Rajagopalachari, S. Radhakrishnan, and C. V. Raman (1954)
2. First Indian to win Miss World – Reita Faria (1966)
3. First Indian to win Miss Universe – Sushmita Sen (1994)
4. First Indian to win an Oscar – Bhanu Athaiya (Best Costume Design, ‘Gandhi’, 1983)
5. First Indian Film to win an Oscar – ‘RRR’ (Song “Naatu Naatu”, 2023)

Female Chief Ministers of Indian States

1. Sucheta Kripalani

      State: Uttar Pradesh

      Tenure: 1963 – 1967 (4 years)

      Note: First woman Chief Minister in India

2. Nandini Satpathy

      State: Odisha

      Tenure: 1972 – 1976 (4 years)

3. J. Jayalalithaa

      State: Tamil Nadu

      Tenures: 1991 – 1996 (5 years)

             2001 (briefly)

            2002 – 2006 (4 years)

            2011 – 2016 (5 years)

            2016 – 2016 (until death)

     Total: Approximately 14 years

4. Mayawati

      State: Uttar Pradesh

      Tenures:

      1995 (short tenure)

            1997 (short tenure)

            2002 – 2003 (1 year)

            2007 – 2012 (5 years)

            Total: Approximately 7 years

5. Mamata Banerjee

      State: West Bengal

      Tenures:

            2011 – 2016 (5 years)

            2016 – 2021 (5 years)

            2021 – Present

            Total: Over 13 years (ongoing)

6. Sheila Dikshit

      State: Delhi (then a Union Territory with legislature)

      Tenure: 1998 – 2013 (15 years)

7. Anandiben Patel

      State: Gujarat

      Tenure: 2014 – 2016 (2 years)

8. Vasundhara Raje

      State: Rajasthan

      Tenures:

            2003 – 2008 (5 years)

            2013 – 2018 (5 years)

            Total: 10 years

9. Rabri Devi

      State: Bihar

      Tenures:

            1997 – 1999

            1999 – 2000

            2000 – 2005

            Total: Approximately 8 years

10. Syeda Anowara Taimur

      State: Assam

      Tenure: 1980 – 1981 (about 1 year)

      Note: Only female CM of Assam

11. Shashikala Kakodkar

      State: Goa

      Tenure: 1973 – 1979 (6 years)

      Note: First and only woman CM of Goa

12. Janaki Ramachandran

      State: Tamil Nadu

      Tenure: 1988 (brief tenure of around 23 days)

13. Uma Bharti

      State: Madhya Pradesh

      Tenure: 2003 – 2004 (about 1 year)

14. Sushma Swaraj

      State: Delhi (then a Union Territory with legislature)

      Tenure: 1998 (briefly for a few months)

15. Dame Gauri Mainde

      State: Puducherry (formerly Pondicherry)

      Tenure: 1974 – 1978 (4 years)

Bharat Ratna Awardees of India

The ‘Bharat Ratna’ is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. It was instituted in 1954 and is awarded in recognition of exceptional service or performance of the highest order in any field of human endeavour. The award may be granted posthumously and is not limited to Indian citizens.

Below is a chronological list of all Bharat Ratna awardees from 1954 to the present:

1954

1. C. Rajagopalachari
2. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
3. C. V. Raman

1955

4. Bhagwan Das
5. M. Visvesvaraya
6. Jawaharlal Nehru

1957

7. Govind Ballabh Pant

1958

8. Dhondo Keshav Karve

1961

9. Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy
10. Purushottam Das Tandon
11. Dr. Rajendra Prasad

1962

12. Dr. Zakir Husain

1963

13. Pandurang Vaman Kane

1966

14. Lal Bahadur Shastri (Posthumous)

1971

15. Indira Gandhi

1975

16. V. V. Giri

1976

17. K. Kamaraj (Posthumous)

1980

18. Mother Teresa

1983

19. Acharya Vinoba Bhave (Posthumous)

1987

20. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (First non-Indian citizen)

1988

21. M. G. Ramachandran (Posthumous)

1990

22. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Posthumous)
23. Nelson Mandela (Non-Indian)

1991

24. Rajiv Gandhi (Posthumous)
25. Vallabhbhai Patel (Posthumous)
26. Morarji Desai

1992

27. Abul Kalam Azad (Posthumous)
28. J. R. D. Tata
29. Satyajit Ray

1997

30. Gulzarilal Nanda
31. Aruna Asaf Ali (Posthumous)
32. Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

1998

33. M. S. Subbulakshmi
34. Chidambaram Subramaniam

1999

35. Jayaprakash Narayan (Posthumous)
36. Amartya Sen
37. Gopinath Bordoloi (Posthumous)
38. Ravi Shankar

2001

39. Lata Mangeshkar
40. Bismillah Khan

2009

41. Bhimsen Joshi

2014

42. C. N. R. Rao
43. Sachin Tendulkar

2015

44. Madan Mohan Malaviya (Posthumous)
45. Atal Bihari Vajpayee

2019

46. Pranab Mukherjee
47. Nanaji Deshmukh (Posthumous)
48. Bhupen Hazarika (Posthumous)

2024

49. Karpoori Thakur (Posthumous)
50. L. K. Advani
51. P. V. Narasimha Rao (Posthumous)
52. Charan Singh (Posthumous)
53. M. S. Swaminathan (Posthumous)

National (State) Animals of Indian States

Just as India has a national animal (the Bengal Tiger), each Indian state and union territory may designate its own state animal. These animals represent the ecological and cultural heritage of their respective states and are often native or symbolic to the region.

Here is a comprehensive list of Indian states along with their officially designated ‘State Animals’:

1. Andhra Pradesh – Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)
2. Arunachal Pradesh – Mithun (Bos frontalis)
3. Assam – One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
4. Bihar – Gaur (Bos gaurus)
5. Chhattisgarh – Wild Buffalo (Bubalus arnee)
6. Goa – Gaur (Bos gaurus)
7. Gujarat – Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)
8. Haryana – Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)
9. Himachal Pradesh – Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)
10. Jharkhand – Elephant (Elephas maximus)
11. Karnataka – Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus)
12. Kerala – Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus)
13. Madhya Pradesh – Barasingha (Swamp Deer) (Rucervus duvaucelii)
14. Maharashtra – Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica)
15. Manipur – Sangai (Brow-antlered Deer) (Rucervus eldii eldii)
16. Meghalaya – Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
17. Mizoram – Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis thar)
18. Nagaland – Mithun (Bos frontalis)
19. Odisha – Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor)
20. Punjab – Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)
21. Rajasthan – Chinkara (Gazella bennettii)
22. Sikkim – Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens)
23. Tamil Nadu – Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius)
24. Telangana – Spotted Deer (Chital) (Axis axis)
25. Tripura – Phayre’s Langur (Trachypithecus phayrei)
26. Uttar Pradesh – Swamp Deer (Barasingha) (Rucervus duvaucelii)
27. Uttarakhand – Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster)
28. West Bengal – Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus)

National Animals of Union Territories

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Dugong (Dugong dugon)
2. Chandigarh – Indian Grey Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii)
3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu – Indian Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)
4. Delhi – Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)
5. Jammu and Kashmir – Hangul (Kashmir Stag) (Cervus hanglu hanglu)
6. Ladakh – Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)
7. Lakshadweep – Butterfly Fish (Chaetodon spp.)
8. Puducherry – Indian Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)

Largest in India

1. Largest State (by area) – Rajasthan
2. Most Populous State – Uttar Pradesh
3. Largest River – Ganga (Ganges)
4. Largest Lake – Chilika Lake (Odisha)
5. State with Largest Forest Area – Madhya Pradesh
6. Largest Canyon – Gandikota Canyon (Andhra Pradesh)
7. Largest Political Party – Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
8. Largest Cricket Stadium – Narendra Modi Stadium, Ahmedabad
9. Largest Zoo – Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park, Tirupati
10. Largest Spice Market – Mirchi Bazaar, Hyderabad

Highest in India

1. Highest Peak – Kangchenjunga (8,586 meters)
2. Highest Waterfall – Kunchikal Falls (Karnataka)
3. Tallest Building – Palais Royale, Mumbai
4. Highest Dam – Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand)
5. Highest Railway Station – Ghum Station (West Bengal)
6. Highest Road Bridge – Chicham Bridge (Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh)
7. Highest Airport – Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport, Leh

Longest in India

1. Longest River – Ganga (Ganges)
2. Longest Railway Route – Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (Vivek Express)
3. Longest Highway – National Highway 44 (Srinagar to Kanyakumari)
4. Longest Beach – Marina Beach, Chennai
5. Longest Cave – Krem Liat Prah (Meghalaya)
6. Longest Rail-cum-Road Bridge – Bogibeel Bridge (Assam)
7. Longest Tunnel (Railway) – Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel (Jammu and Kashmir)

Smallest in India

1. Smallest State (by area) – Goa
2. Least Populated State – Sikkim
3. Shortest-serving President – Neelam Sanjiva Reddy (for a brief period before re-election)
4. Smallest Union Territory – Lakshadweep
5. Smallest Island with Human Inhabitation – Bitarkanika (Odisha)
6. Smallest River – Arvari River (Rajasthan, approx. 90 km)

Old & New Names of Some Places in India

Over time, several places in India have been renamed due to historical, cultural, political, or linguistic reasons. Some of these name changes reflect local heritage, ancient traditions, or decolonization efforts. Below is a list of such places with their old and new names:

Old Name       New Name                 State/Region

Bombay           Mumbai                       Maharashtra

Calcutta           Kolkata                       West Bengal

Madras            Chennai                       Tamil Nadu

Bangalore        Bengaluru                    Karnataka

Trivandrum     Thiruvananthapuram   Kerala

Baroda            Vadodara                    Gujarat

Allahabad        Prayagraj                     Uttar Pradesh

Faizabad          Ayodhya                     Uttar Pradesh

Gurgaon          Gurugram                    Haryana

Mangalore       Mangaluru                   Karnataka

Pondicherry     Puducherry                  Union Territory

Poona              Pune                            Maharashtra

Benares           Varanasi                      Uttar Pradesh

Cawnpore        Kanpur                        Uttar Pradesh

Jubbulpore       Jabalpur                       Madhya Pradesh

Waltair            Visakhapatnam           Andhra Pradesh

Tanjore            Thanjavur                    Tamil Nadu

Quilon Kollam                        Kerala

Belgaum          Belagavi                      Karnataka

Hospet Hosapete                     Karnataka

Rajahmundry  Rajamahendravaram   Andhra Pradesh

Orissa              Odisha             (State Name)

Simla               Shimla             Himachal Pradesh

Gauhati           Guwahati                    Assam

Bhopalpatnam Bhupalpally                 Telangana

Nuclear Research Centres of India

1. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)

            Location: Trombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra

            Established: 1954

2. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)

            Location: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu

            Established: 1971

        Focus Area: Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) research and development

        Significance: Second largest nuclear research centre in India

3. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)

      Headquarters: Mumbai, Maharashtra

      Role: Design, construction, operation of nuclear power reactors in India

4. Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP)

            Location: Kolkata, West Bengal

            Established: 1949

            Functions: Basic research in nuclear physics, biophysics, and materials science

5. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC)

            Location:Kolkata, West Bengal

            Function: Research in nuclear physics and accelerator science

6. Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD)

            Location: Hyderabad, Telangana

            Function: Exploration of atomic minerals (like uranium and thorium) across India

7. Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT)

            Location: Indore, Madhya Pradesh

            Established: 1986

            Functions: Research in lasers, accelerators, and related technologies

8. Heavy Water Board (HWB)

            Headquarters: Mumbai, Maharashtra

            Function: Production of heavy water used in nuclear reactors

9. Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT)

            Location: Mumbai, Maharashtra

            Function: Production of radioisotopes for medical and industrial use

10. Institute for Plasma Research (IPR)

            Location: Gandhinagar, Gujarat

            Function: Research in plasma science and fusion energy

11. Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership (GCNEP)

            Location: Bahadurgarh, Haryana

            Purpose: International cooperation and advanced training in nuclear energy

Major Newspapers of India

English Language Newspapers

1. The Times of India – One of the oldest and most widely read English dailies
2. The Hindu – Known for its quality journalism and in-depth reporting
3. The Indian Express – Popular for investigative journalism
4. Hindustan Times – Leading English newspaper in North India
5. Deccan Chronicle – Widely read in South India
6. The Telegraph – Prominent in Eastern India, especially West Bengal
7. The Economic Times – Leading financial and business daily
8. Business Standard – Business and economy-focused newspaper
9. The Tribune – Prominent in Northern India, especially Punjab, Haryana, and Chandigarh

Hindi Language Newspapers

1. Dainik Jagran – One of the most circulated daily newspapers in India
2. Dainik Bhaskar – Widely read in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Chhattisgarh
3. Amar Ujala – Popular in Uttar Pradesh and Northern India
4. Hindustan (Hindustan Dainik) – Strong readership in Bihar, Jharkhand, and UP
5. Rajasthan Patrika – Major daily in Rajasthan and neighbouring states
6. Navbharat Times – Hindi newspaper published by the Times Group

Bengali Language Newspapers

1. Anandabazar Patrika – Most prominent Bengali daily
2. Bartaman – Popular newspaper in West Bengal
3. Aajkaal – Known for political and cultural news
4. Sangbad Pratidin – A major Bengali newspaper

Tamil Language Newspapers

1. Dina Thanthi – One of the most widely read Tamil dailies
2. Dinamalar – Known for its coverage of Tamil Nadu news
3. Dinamani – Owned by The New Indian Express Group
4. The Hindu (Tamil) – Tamil version of the English daily

Telugu Language Newspapers

1. Eenadu – Most popular Telugu daily
2. Sakshi – Owned by Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy’s media group
3. Andhra Jyothi – Known for political coverage
4. Andhra Bhoomi – Another major Telugu newspaper

Marathi Language Newspapers

1. Lokmat – Most widely read Marathi daily
2. Sakal – Prominent in Western Maharashtra
3. Loksatta – Owned by the Indian Express Group
4. Maharashtra Times – Part of the Times Group

Malayalam Language Newspapers

1. Malayala Manorama – One of the largest circulated newspapers in India
2. Mathrubhumi – Renowned Malayalam daily
3. Deshabhimani – CPI(M)-affiliated newspaper
4. Janmabhumi – BJP-leaning Malayalam daily

Kanada Language Newspapers

1. Vijaya Karnataka – Most read Kanada daily
2. Prajavani – Trusted name in Kanada journalism
3. Udayavani – Leading in coastal Karnataka
4. Kanada Prabha – Part of The New Indian Express Group

Urdu Language Newspapers

1. Inquilab – Widely read in North India
2. Siasat – Hyderabad-based Urdu daily
3. Roznama Rashtriya Sahara – Major Urdu newspaper

Assamese Language Newspapers

1. Asomiya Pratidin – Most circulated Assamese daily
2. Dainik Janambhumi – One of the oldest Assamese dailies
3. Niyomiya Barta – Emerging popular daily
4. Amar Asom – Known for strong editorials

Oil Refineries in India

1. Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance) – Jamnagar, Gujarat
2. Vadinar Refinery – Vadinar, Gujarat
3. Panipat Refinery – Panipat, Haryana
4. Paradip Refinery – Paradip, Odisha
5. Mathura Refinery – Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|
6. Haldia Refinery – Haldia, West Bengal
7. Barauni Refinery – Barauni, Bihar
8. Gujarat Refinery – Koyali, Vadodara, Gujarat
9. Digboi Refinery – Digboi, Assam
10. Bongaigaon Refinery – Bongaigaon, Assam
11. Guwahati Refinery – Guwahati, Assam
12. Mumbai Refinery (IOCL) – Mumbai, Maharashtra
13. Kochi Refinery – Kochi, Kerala
14. Numaligarh Refinery – Numaligarh, Assam
15. Visakh Refinery – Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
16. Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd (CPCL) – Manali,
17. Nagapattinam Refinery (CPCL) – Nagapattinam
18. Tatipaka Refinery – East Godavari, Andhra Pradesh
19. Mangalore Refinery – Mangalore, Karnataka
20. Bina Refinery – Bina, Madhya Pradesh
21. Bathinda Refinery – Bathinda, Punjab

Major National Political Parties of India

      (Recognized by the Election Commission of India)

1. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

      Founded: 1980

      Ideology: Hindu nationalism, right-wing, conservative

2. Indian National Congress (INC)

      Founded: 1885

      Ideology: Secularism, centre-left, social democracy

3. Communist Party of India (Marxist) – CPI(M)

      Founded: 1964

      Ideology: Marxism-Leninism, left-wing politics

4. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

      Founded: 1984

      Ideology: Dalit empowerment, social justice

5. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)

      Founded: 2012

   Ideology: Anti-corruption, governance reform, centrism

6. National People’s Party (NPP)

      Founded: 2013

      Based in: Meghalaya and northeastern states

Major Regional Political Parties

      (Prominent in individual states or regions)

1. Trinamool Congress (TMC) – West Bengal
2. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) – Tamil Nadu
3. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) – Tamil Nadu
4. Shiv Sena – Maharashtra

      Split into factions: Eknath Shinde faction and                             Uddhav Thackeray faction

5. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) – Maharashtra

      Founded by: Sharad Pawar (now split into factions)

6. Samajwadi Party (SP) – Uttar Pradesh
7. Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) – Bihar
8. Biju Janata Dal (BJD) – Odisha
9. Telangana Rashtra Samithi (now Bharat Rashtra Samithi – BRS) – Telangana
10. YSR Congress Party (YSRCP) – Andhra Pradesh
11. Janata Dal (United) – JD(U) – Bihar
12. Akhil Bharatiya Ram Rajya Parishad
13. Asom Gana Parishad (AGP)
14. Indigenous People’s Front of Tripura (IPFT),
15. Mizo National Front (MNF) – Mizoram
16. All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF) – Assam

Museums of India

1. National Museum, New Delhi

      One of the largest museums in India, it was established in 1949.

      It houses collections of Indian art, culture, and history from ancient to modern times.

2. Indian Museum, Kolkata

      Founded in 1814, it is the oldest and one of the largest museums in India.

      It contains rare collections of antiques, fossils, mummies, and Mughal paintings.

3. Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata

      Built in memory of Queen Victoria, this museum holds a large collection of colonial-era paintings, manuscripts, and sculptures.

4. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai

      Formerly known as the Prince of Wales Museum, it features art, archaeology, and natural history exhibits.

5. Government Museum, Chennai

      Established in 1851, it is one of the oldest museums in India.

      Known for its collection of bronze sculptures, especially from South India.

6. Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad

      Famous for its wide-ranging collection of art objects from Europe, Asia, and the Middle East.

      It was founded with the personal collection of Nawab Salar Jung III.

7. National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA), New Delhi

      Houses modern and contemporary Indian art from the 1850s to the present.

8. Calico Museum of Textiles, Ahmedabad

      Known for its rare and historical textiles of India.

      It includes temple hangings, costumes, and traditional embroidery.

9. Shankar’s International Dolls Museum, New Delhi

      Specializes in dolls from across the globe, showcasing world cultures through miniature representations.

10. National Rail Museum, New Delhi

      Dedicated to the history of rail transport in India, featuring vintage engines and models.

News Agencies of India

1. Press Trust of India (PTI)

      The largest news agency in India.

      Provides news coverage in both English and Hindi to newspapers, TV channels, and digital platforms.

2. United News of India (UNI)

      A prominent multilingual news agency.

      Offers news services in English, Hindi, Urdu, and other Indian languages.

3. Asian News International (ANI)

      A leading video news agency.

      Supplies multimedia content (video, text, and photos) to TV channels, websites, and international media.

4. Hindustan Samachar

      A multilingual news agency providing news in several Indian languages.

      Known for its focus on rural and regional news.

5. IANS (Indo-Asian News Service)

      A private news agency providing news in English and Hindi.

      Covers national and international news and analysis.

6. Samachar Bharati

      A Hindi news agency that merged with UNI.

      Earlier served various Hindi newspapers.

7. News Agency of India (NAI)

      A lesser-known agency serving regional and local media houses.

Pilgrimage Sites of various religions in India

Hinduism

1. Varanasi (Kashi), Uttar Pradesh

      One of the oldest and holiest cities for Hindus, situated on the banks of the Ganga River.

2. Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu

      Associated with Lord Rama; one of the Char Dham pilgrimage sites.

3. Kedarnath and Badrinath, Uttarakhand

      Sacred temples in the Himalayas; part of Char Dham and Panch Kedar.

4. Jagannath Puri, Odisha

      Famous for the Jagannath Temple and Rath Yatra; one of the Char Dham.

5. Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh

      Home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, one of the richest temples in the world.

6. Dwarka, Gujarat

      Ancient city associated with Lord Krishna; part of the Char Dham.

Islam

1. Ajmer Sharif Dargah, Rajasthan

      Tomb of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, a revered Sufi saint.

2. Hazrat Nizamuddin Dargah, Delhi

      Shrine of the famous Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.

3. Jama Masjid, Delhi

      One of the largest mosques in India, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.

4. Haji Ali Dargah, Mumbai

      Built on a small islet, it is the tomb of a Muslim saint, Haji Ali.

Christianity

1. Velankanni Church, Tamil Nadu

      Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health; major pilgrimage site for Christians in India.

2. St. Thomas Mount and San Thome Basilica, Chennai

      Linked with St. Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus.

3. Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa

      Houses the relics of St. Francis Xavier; UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Sikhism

1. Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib), Amritsar, Punjab

      The holiest site of Sikhism.

2. Takht Sri Patna Sahib, Bihar

      Birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru.

3. Anandpur Sahib, Punjab

      A historic Gurudwara associated with the foundation of the Khalsa.

Buddhism

1. Bodh Gaya, Bihar

      Where Lord Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.

2. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh

      The place where Buddha gave his first sermon.

3. Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh

      Site of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana (death).

4. Rajgir and Nalanda, Bihar

      Important Buddhist learning and meditation centres.

Jainism

1. Shikharji, Jharkhand

      One of the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jains.

2. Palitana Temples, Gujarat

      A complex of hundreds of marble temples atop Shatrunjaya hills.

3. Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples), Rajasthan

      Famous for intricately carved Jain temples.

Zoroastrianism (Parsis)

1. Udvada, Gujarat

      Location of the Iranshah Atash Behram, the most sacred Zoroastrian fire temple in India.

Major Railway Research Centres in India

1. Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
2. Indian Railway Institute of Signal Engineering and Telecommunications (IRISET), Secunderabad, Telangana
3. Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (IRIMEE), Jamalpur, Bihar
4. Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering (IRICEN), Pune, Maharashtra
5. Indian Railways Institute of Electrical Engineering (IRIEEN), Nasik, Maharashtra
6. Indian Railways Institute of Transport Management (IRITM), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
7. Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS), New Delhi
8. Railway Staff College (National Academy of Indian Railways – NAIR), Vadodara, Gujarat
9. Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Ltd. (DFCCIL) – Research and Innovation Wing
10. Indian Railway Innovation and Development Board (IRIDB)

Army Training Centres in India

1. Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun, Uttarakhand
2. Officers Training Academy (OTA), Chennai, Tamil Nadu & Gaya, Bihar
3. National Defence Academy (NDA), Khadakwasla, Pune, Maharashtra
4. Army War College, Mhow, Madhya Pradesh
5. Defence Services Staff College (DSSC), Wellington, Tamil Nadu
6. High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), Gulmarg, Jammu & Kashmir
7. Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJWS), Vairengte, Mizoram
8. Infantry School, Mhow, Madhya Pradesh
9. Armoured Corps Centre and School (ACC\&S), Ahmednagar, Maharashtra
10. Artillery School, Deolali, Maharashtra
11. Army Air Defence College, Gopalpur, Odisha
12. Corps of Military Police Centre and School, Bengaluru, Karnataka
13. Army Medical Corps Centre and College, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
14. Army Education Corps Training College and Centre, Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh

Classical Indian Literature and Writers

      Below is a comprehensive list of Classical Indian Literature and Writers, covering Sanskrit, Tamil, Prakrit, Pali, and other classical languages of India:

1. Sanskrit Literature

      Sanskrit is the most ancient and classical language of India.

      Major Writers and Thier Works

Authors                      Works

Valmiki                       Ramayana

Vyasa                          Mahabharata,

                                    Puranas,

                                    Bhagavad Gita

Kalidasa                      Abhijnanasakuntalam

                                    Meghaduta

                                    Raghuvamsha

                                    Kumarasambhava

Bhasa                          Svapnavasavadatta,

                                    Pratijnayaugandharayana

Sudraka                       Mricchakatika

Bhavabhuti                  Uttara Ramacharita

                                    Malatimadhava

Banabhatta                  Kadambari,

                                    Harshacharita

Dandin                        Dashakumaracharita

                                    Kavyadarsa

Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa

Patanjali                      Mahabhashya

Panini                          Ashtadhyayi

2. Tamil Literature

      Classical Tamil literature flourished during the Sangam Age and later Chola and Pandya periods.

Major Writers & Their Works

Thiruvalluvar   Thirukkural

Ilango Adigal  Silappatikaram

Sattanar                       Manimekalai

Avvaiyar                     Moral and Didactic Poems

Kamban Kamba          Ramayanam

3. Prakrit Literature

      Prakrits were vernacular languages used in Jain and Buddhist texts.

      Major Writers and Works

Hala                             Gathasaptasati

Siddhasena                  Nyayavatara

Srichandra                   Vaddaradhane

4. Pali Literature

      Pali was the language of the early Buddhist Canon.

      Major Writers & Works

Theravada Monks       Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutta,                                                                                 Abhidhamma Pitaka)

Ashvaghosha   Buddhacharita, Saundarananda

Nagasena                     Milinda Panha

5. Other Classical Literatures

      (a) Kannada (Old Kannada):

Writers                       Works

Pampa             Vikramarjuna Vijaya

Ranna                          Sahasa Bhima Vijaya

      (b) Telugu

Writers                       Works

Nannaya                      Andhra Mahabharatam

Tikkana                       Mahabharata

      (c) Malayalam (Early Phase)

Writers                       Works|

Cherusseri Namboothiri          Krishna Gatha.

Union Ministers in the Government of India

      Prime Minister: Narendra Modi

Cabinet Ministers (30)

1. Rajnath Singh – Defence
2. Amit Shah – Home Affairs & Cooperation
3. Nitin Gadkari – Road Transport & Highways
4. JP Nadda – Health & Family Welfare; Chemicals & Fertilizers
5. Shivraj Singh Chouhan – Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare; Rural Development
6. Nirmala Sitharaman – Finance; Corporate Affairs
7. S. Jaishankar – External Affairs
8. Manohar Lal Khattar – Housing & Urban Affairs; Power
9. H.D. Kumaraswamy – Heavy Industries; Steel
10. Piyush Goyal – Commerce & Industry
11. Dharmendra Pradhan – Education
12. Jitan Ram Manjhi – Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises
13. Lalan Singh – Panchayati Raj; Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying
14. Sarbananda Sonowal – Ports, Shipping & Waterways
15. Virendra Kumar – Social Justice & Empowerment
16. Ram Mohan Naidu – Civil Aviation
17. Pralhad Joshi – Consumer Affairs; Food & Public Distribution; New & Renewable Energy
18. Jual Oram – Tribal Affairs
19. Giriraj Singh – Textiles
20. Ashwini Vaishnaw – Railways; Information & Broadcasting; Electronics & IT
21. Jyotiraditya Scindia – Communications; Development of North-Eastern Region
22. Bhupender Yadav – Environment, Forest & Climate Change
23. Gajendra Singh Shekhawat – Culture; Tourism
24. Annapurna Devi – Women & Child Development
25. Kiren Rijiju – Parliamentary Affairs; Minority Affairs
26. Hardeep Singh Puri – Petroleum & Natural Gas
27. Mansukh Mandaviya – Labour & Employment; Youth Affairs & Sports
28. G Kishan Reddy – Coal; Mines
29. Chirag Paswan – Food Processing Industries
30. C.R. Patil – Jal Shakti

Ministers of State (Independent Charge)

1. Rao Inderjit Singh – Planning; Statistics & Programme Implementation
2. Jitendra Singh – Earth Sciences
3. Arjun Ram Meghwal – Law & Justice
4. Prataprao Jadhav – AYUSH
5. Jayant Chaudhary – Skill Development & Entrepreneurship.

Nobel Prize Winners from India

Name                       Subject           Year

Rabindranath Tagore  Literature        1913

      Note: First Asian Nobel laureate; awarded for ‘Gitanjali’.

1. V. Raman Physics            1930

      Note: For his work on the scattering of light (Raman Effect).

      Mother Teresa                   Peace               1979

      Note: For her humanitarian work with the poor in Kolkata.

      Amartya Sen                     Economic        1998

      Note: For his work in welfare economics and social choice theory.

      Kailash Satyarthi   Peace               2014

      Note: For his work against child labor and child rights (shared with Malala).

      V Ramakrishnan   Chemistry        2009

      Note: For studies on the structure of the ribosome (UK citizen, Indian origin).

      S Chandrasekhar   Physics           1983

      Note: For theoretical studies of stellar structure (US citizen, Indian origin).

      Har Gobind Khorana        Medicine         1968

      Note: For genetic code research (US citizen, Indian origin).

      Ronald Ross                      Medicine         1902

      Abhijit Banerjee    Economic                    2019

Part-III World

(Assam to World-G K)

Chapter-1: Geography of the Earth

Geography of the World (Earth): Introduction

Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the solar system and the only known planet to support life. It lies between Venus and Mars and orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 150 million kilometers (93 million miles).

Continents of the Earth

      The Earth has seven continents:

1. Asia
2. 2. Africa,
3. North America
4. South America
5. Antarctica
6.  Europe
7. Australia.

Continents of the Earth

      The Earth has five major oceans –

1. Pacific
2. Atlantic
3. Indian
4. Southern
5. Arctic Oceans.

Landforms of the Earth

The Earth’s surface includes various landforms like –

• Mountains
• Plains
• Plateaus
• Deserts
• Valleys

Water Bodies of the Earth

1. Rivers 2. Lakes
2. Seas 4. Glaciers

Major Deserts of the World

1. Sahara Desert

 Countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, Western Sahara

2. Arabian Desert

Countries: Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Iraq, Yemen

3. Gobi Desert

Countries: China, Mongolia

4. Kalahari Desert

Countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa

5. Patagonian Desert (Monte Desert)

Countries: Argentina, parts of Chile

6. Great Victoria Desert

 Country: Australia

7. Great Sandy Desert

            Country: Australia

8. Thar Desert (Great Indian Desert)

            Countries: India, Pakistan

9. Karakum Desert

            Country: Turkmenistan

10. Kyzylkum Desert

            Countries: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan

11. Sonoran Desert

            Countries: Mexico, United States (Arizona, California)

12. Chihuahuan Desert

            Countries: Mexico, United States (Texas, New Mexico)

13. Mojave Desert

            Country: United States (California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona)

14. Atacama Desert

            Country: Chile

15. Namib Desert

            Country: Namibia

16. Syrian Desert

            Countries: Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia

17. Dasht-e Kavir (Great Salt Desert)

            Country: Iran

18. Dasht-e Lut (Lut Desert)

            Country: Iran

19. Taklamakan Desert

            Country: China

20. Antarctic Desert

            Continent: Antarctica

21. Arctic Desert

            Region: Arctic Circle (includes parts of Canada, Greenland, Russia, Norway, United States)

Climate Zones of the Earth

      The Earth has different climate zones:

1. Tropical Zone (hot and humid)
2. Temperate Zone (moderate)
3. Polar Zone (cold and icy)

Layers of the Earth

      The Earth consists of:

1. Crust (outermost solid layer)
2. Mantle (semi-solid rock)
3. Core (inner part – outer core is liquid, inner core is solid)

Atmosphere (Gases) of the Earth

      The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gases called theatmosphere, which contains

1. Nitrogen (N2) – about 78%
2. Oxygen (O2) – about 21%
3. Argon (Ar) – about 0.93%
4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – about 0.04%
5. Other Gases – less than 0.03%

      Includes neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, and ozone.

6. Water Vapour (H2O) – varies (0–4%)

Important Rivers of the World

1. Nile River –Africa
2. Amazon River – South America
3. Yangtze River – Asia (China)
4. Mississippi River – North America (USA)
5. Danube River – Europe
6. Ganges River – Asia (India & Bangladesh)
7. Volga River – Europe (Russia)
8. Mekong River – Southeast Asia
9. Murray-Darling River System – Australia
10. Congo River – Africa

Major Mountain Ranges of the World

1. Himalayas – Asia (India, Nepal, Bhutan, China)
2. Andes – South America
3. Rocky Mountains – North America (USA & Canada)
4. Alps – Europe
5. Atlas Mountains – North Africa
6. Ural Mountains – Russia
7. Appalachian Mountains – Eastern USA
8. Carpathians – Central and Eastern Europe
9. Great Dividing Range – Australia
10. Tian Shan & Kunlun Mountains – Central Asia

Countries of the World

      Country                            Capital

1. Afghanistan – Kabul
2. Albania – Tirana
3. Algeria – Algiers
4. Andorra – Andorra la Vella
5. Angola – Luanda
6. Antigua and Barbuda – Saint John’s
7. Argentina – Buenos Aires
8. Armenia – Yerevan
9. Australia – Canberra
10. Austria – Vienna
11. Azerbaijan – Baku
12. Bahamas – Nassau
13. Bahrain – Manama
14. Bangladesh – Dhaka
15. Barbados – Bridgetown
16. Belarus – Minsk
17. Belgium – Brussels
18. Belize – Belmopan
19. Benin – Porto-Novo
20. Bhutan – Thimphu
21. Bolivia – Sucre, La Paz
22. Bosnia &Herzegovina – Sarajevo
23. Botswana – Gaborone
24. Brazil – Brasilia
25. Brunei – Bandar Seri Begawan
26. Bulgaria – Sofia
27. Burkina Faso – Ouagadougou
28. Burundi – Gitega
29. Cabo Verde – Praia
30. Cambodia – Phnom Penh
31. Cameroon – Yaounde
32. Canada – Ottawa
33. Central African Republic – Bangui
34. Chad – N’Djamena
35. Chile – Santiago
36. China – Beijing
37. Colombia – Bogota
38. Comoros – Moroni
39. Congo, Republic – Brazzaville
40. Congo, Democratic Rep – Kinshasa
41. Costa Rica – San Jose
42. Croatia – Zagreb
43. Cuba – Havana
44. Cyprus – Nicosia
45. Czech Republic – Prague
46. Denmark – Copenhagen
47. Djibouti – Djibouti
48. Dominica – Roseau
49. Dominican Republic – Santo Domingo
50. East Timor – Dili
51. Ecuador – Quito
52. Egypt – Cairo
53. El Salvador – San Salvador
54. Equatorial Guinea – Malabo
55. Eritrea – Asmara
56. Estonia – Tallinn
57. Eswatini (Swaziland) – Mbabane, Lobamba
58. Ethiopia – Addis Ababa
59. Fiji – Suva
60. Finland – Helsinki
61. France – Paris
62. Gabon – Libreville
63. Gambia – Banjul
64. Georgia – Tbilisi
65. Germany – Berlin
66. Ghana – Accra
67. Greece – Athens
68. Grenada – St. George’s
69. Guatemala – Guatemala City
70. Guinea – Conakry
71. Guinea-Bissau – Bissau
72. Guyana – Georgetown
73. Haiti – Port-au-Prince
74. Honduras – Tegucigalpa
75. Hungary – Budapest
76. Iceland – Reykjavik
77. India – New Delhi
78. Indonesia – Jakarta
79. Iran – Tehran
80. Iraq – Baghdad
81. Ireland – Dublin
82. Israel – Jerusalem
83. Italy – Rome
84. Jamaica – Kingston
85. Japan – Tokyo
86. Jordan – Amman
87. Kazakhstan – Astana (Nur-Sultan)
88. Kenya – Nairobi
89. Kiribati – South Tarawa
90. Korea, North – Pyongyang
91. Korea, South – Seoul
92. Kosovo – Pristina
93. Kuwait – Kuwait City
94. Kyrgyzstan – Bishkek
95. Laos – Vientiane
96. Latvia – Riga
97. Lebanon – Beirut
98. Lesotho – Maseru
99. Liberia – Monrovia
100. Libya – Tripoli
101. Liechtenstein – Vaduz
102. Lithuania – Vilnius
103. Luxembourg – Luxembourg
104. Madagascar – Antananarivo
105. Malawi – Lilongwe
106. Malaysia – Kualalumpur, Putrajaya
107. Maldives – Male
108. Mali – Bamako
109. Malta – Valletta
110. Marshall Islands – Majuro
111. Mauritania – Nouakchott
112. Mauritius – Port Louis
113. Mexico – Mexico City
114. Micronesia – Palikir
115. Moldova – Chisinau
116. Monaco – Monaco
117. Mongolia – Ulanbatar
118. Montenegro – Podgorica
119. Morocco – Rabat
120. Mozambique – Maputo
121. Myanmar (Burma) – Naypyidaw
122. Namibia – Windhoek
123. Nauru – Yaren District (de facto)
124. Nepal – Kathmandu
125. Netherlands – Amsterdam. Hague
126. New Zealand – Wellington
127. Nicaragua – Managua
128. Niger – Niamey
129. Nigeria – Abuja
130. North Macedonia – Skopje
131. Norway – Oslo
132. Oman – Muscat
133. Pakistan – Islamabad
134. Palau – Ngerulmud
135. Panama – Panama City
136. Papua New Guinea – Port Moresby
137. Paraguay – Asuncion
138. Peru – Lima
139. Philippines – Manila
140. Poland – Warsaw
141. Portugal – Lisbon
142. Qatar – Doha
143. Romania – Bucharest
144. Russia – Moscow
145. Rwanda – Kigali
146. Saint Kitts and Nevis – Basseterre
147. Saint Lucia – Castries
148. Vincent & Grenadines – Kingstown
149. Samoa – Apia
150. San Marino – San Marino
151. Sao Tome & Principe – Sao Tome
152. Saudi Arabia – Riyadh
153. Senegal – Dakar
154. Serbia – Belgrade
155. Seychelles – Victoria
156. Sierra Leone – Freetown
157. Singapore – Singapore
158. Slovakia – Bratislava
159. Slovenia – Ljubljana
160. Solomon Islands – Honiara
161. Somalia – Mogadishu
162. South Africa – Pretoria, Cape Town
163. South Sudan – Juba
164. Spain – Madrid
165. Sri Lanka – Colombo
166. Sudan – Khartoum
167. Suriname – Paramaribo
168. Sweden – Stockholm
169. Switzerland – Bern
170. Syria – Damascus
171. Taiwan – Taipei
172. Tajikistan – Dushanbe
173. Tanzania – Dodoma
174. Thailand – Bangkok
175. Togo – Lome
176. Tonga – Nukualofa
177. Trinidad and Tobago – Port of Spain
178. Tunisia – Tunis
179. Turkey – Ankara
180. Turkmenistan – Ashgabat
181. Tuvalu – Funafuti
182. Uganda – Kampala
183. Ukraine – Kyiv
184. United Arab Emirates – Abu Dhabi
185. United Kingdom – London
186. United States – Washington, D.C.
187. Uruguay – Montevideo
188. Uzbekistan – Tashkent
189. Vanuatu – Port Vila
190. Vatican City – Vatican City
191. Venezuela – Caracas
192. Vietnam – Hanoi
193. Yemen – Sana’a
194. Zambia – Lusaka
195. Zimbabwe – Harare

Chapter 2: World History

Ancient Civilizations of the World

1. Sumerian Civilization

            Location: Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)

            Time Span: c. 4500 BCE – 1900 BCE

2. Egyptian Civilization

            Location: Nile River Valley, Egypt

            Time Span: c. 3100 BCE – 332 BCE

            (Ended with Alexander the Great’s conquest)

3. Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization)

            Location: Northwest India and Pakistan

            Time Span: c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE

4. Chinese Civilization (Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties)

            Location: Yellow River Valley, China

            Time Span:

            Xia Dynasty: c. 2070 BCE – 1600 BCE

            Shang Dynasty: c. 1600 BCE – 1046 BCE

            Zhou Dynasty: c. 1046 BCE – 256 BCE

5. Minoan Civilization

            Location: Island of Crete, Greece

            Time Span: c. 2700 BCE – 1450 BCE

6. Mycenaean Civilization

            Location: Mainland Greece

            Time Span: c. 1600 BCE – 1100 BCE

7. Babylonian and Assyrian Civilizations

            Babylonians: c. 1894 BCE – 539 BCE

            Assyrians: c. 2500 BCE – 609 BCE

8. Hittite Civilization

            Location: Anatolia (modern-day Turkey)

            Time Span: c. 1600 BCE – 1178 BCE

9. Persian (Achaemenid) Empire

            Location: Iran and beyond

            Time Span: c. 550 BCE – 330 BCE

10. Greek Civilization (Archaic to Hellenistic)

            Location: Greece and the Mediterranean

            Time Span: c. 800 BCE – 146 BCE

11. Roman Civilization

            Location: Italy and across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East

            Time Span:

            Roman Kingdom: c. 753 BCE – 509 BCE

            Roman Republic: c. 509 BCE – 27 BCE

            Roman Empire (Western): 27 BCE – 476 CE

            Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman): 330 CE – 1453 CE

12. Olmec Civilization

            Location: Mesoamerica (modern Mexico)

            Time Span: c. 1500 BCE – 400 BCE

13. Mayan Civilization

            Location: Central America

            Time Span: c. 2000 BCE – 1500 CE

            (Peak period: 250 CE – 900 CE)

14. Inca Civilization

            Location: Andes Mountains, South America

            Time Span: c. 1200 CE – 1533 CE

Important Wars in World History

1. Trojan War

            Time span: 12th or 13th century BCE (mythical or historical)

            Note: Legendary war between the Greeks and Trojans, known from Homer’s Iliad.

2. Greco-Persian Wars

            Time span: 499 BCE to 449 BCE

            Note: Series of wars between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire.

3. Peloponnesian War

            Time span: 431 BCE to 404 BCE

            Note: Internal conflict between Athens and Sparta that weakened ancient Greece.

4. Punic Wars

            Time span: 264 BCE to 146 BCE

            Note: Wars between Rome and Carthage for dominance over the Mediterranean.

5. Gallic Wars

            Time span: 58 BCE to 50 BCE

            Note: Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, expanding Roman control in Europe.

6. Roman Civil Wars

            Time span: First century BCE

            Note: Internal Roman conflicts leading to the fall of the Republic and rise of the Empire.

7. Crusades

            Time span: 1095 to 1291 CE

            Note: Religious wars over the Holy Land between Christians and Muslims.

8. Hundred Years’ War

            Time span: 1337 to 1453

            Note: Long conflict between England and France, influencing the rise of national identities.

9. Wars of the Roses

            Time span: 1455 to 1487

            Note: Civil wars in England between the houses of York and Lancaster.

10. Spanish Conquests of the Americas

            Time span: 1492 to 1572

            Note: Conquests of Aztec and Inca empires by Spanish explorers.

11. Thirty Years’ War

            Time span: 1618 to 1648

            Note: Devastating religious war in Europe, ended by the Peace of Westphalia.

12. English Civil War

            Time span: 1642 to 1651

            Note: War between royalists and parliamentarians in England.

13. American Revolutionary War

            Time span: 1775 to 1783

            Note: Struggle of the American colonies for independence from Britain.

14. French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

            Time span: 1792 to 1815

            Note: Revolutionary wars followed by Napoleon’s campaigns across Europe.

15. American Civil War

            Time span: 1861 to 1865

            Note: War between the North and South of the United States over slavery and union.

16. World War-I

            Time span: 1914 to 1918

            Note: Global war primarily centered in Europe, ending several empires.

17. Russian Civil War

            Time span: 1917 to 1923

            Note: War between the Bolsheviks (Reds) and anti-communist forces (Whites).

18. Spanish Civil War

            Time span: 1936 to 1939

            Note: Conflict in Spain that led to a fascist dictatorship under Franco.

19. World War -II

            Time span: 1939 to 1945

            Note: Largest and deadliest war in history, involving most of the world.

20. Korean War

            Time span: 1950 to 1953

            Note: War between North Korea and South Korea, resulting in a divided peninsula.

21. Vietnam War

            Time span: 1955 to 1975

            Note: War in Southeast Asia between communist North Vietnam and US-backed South Vietnam.

22. Indo-Pakistani Wars

            Time span: 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999

            Note: Conflicts between India and Pakistan, mainly over the Kashmir region.

23. Gulf War

            Time span: 1990 to 1991

            Note: US-led coalition war against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait.

24. War in Afghanistan

            Time span: 2001 to 2021

            Note: US-led invasion following the 9/11 attacks to remove the Taliban.

25. Iraq War

      Time span: 2003 to 2011

      Note: US-led invasion of Iraq, resulting in long-term instability in the region.

Important Global Revolutions

1. Glorious Revolution

            Time span: 1688

            Location: England

            Note: Overthrew King James II and established a constitutional monarchy under William and Mary.

2. American Revolution

            Time span: 1775 to 1783

            Location: Thirteen American Colonies

            Note: Resulted in the independence of the United States from British rule.

3. French Revolution

            Time span: 1789 to 1799

            Location: France

            Note: Overthrew the monarchy, led to the rise of Napoleon, and inspired global democratic movements.

4. Haitian Revolution

            Time span: 1791 to 1804

            Location: Haiti (then Saint-Domingue)

            Note: The only successful slave revolt in history, leading to Haiti’s independence from France.

5. Latin American Revolutions

            Time span: 1808 to 1830s

            Location: Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Latin America

            Note: Series of uprisings that led to independence for countries like Mexico, Colombia, Argentina, and Brazil.

6. Greek War of Independence

            Time span: 1821 to 1832

            Location: Greece

            Note: Revolution against Ottoman rule that led to the establishment of an independent Greek state.

7. Belgian Revolution

            Time span: 1830

            Location: Belgium

            Note: Secured Belgium’s independence from the Netherlands.

8. Revolutions of 1848

            Time span: 1848

            Location: Europe (France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary)

            Note: A wave of political uprisings demanding democratic reforms and national independence.

9. Meiji Restoration

            Time span: 1868

            Location: Japan

            Note: Political revolution that ended the Tokugawa shogunate and modernized Japan.

10. Russian Revolution of 1905

            Time span: 1905

            Location: Russia

            Note: Demanding political reform and workers’ rights.

11. Russian Revolution of 1917

            Time span: 1917

            Location: Russia

            Note: Overthrew the Tsarist regime and established the first communist government under the Bolsheviks.

12. Chinese Revolution of 1911 (Xinhai Revolution)

            Time span: 1911

            Location: China

            Note: Overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.

13. Mexican Revolution

            Time span: 1910 to 1920

            Location: Mexico

            Note: Major social and political upheaval that transformed Mexican politics and society.

14. Chinese Communist Revolution

            Time span: 1945 to 1949

            Location: China

            Note: Led by Mao Zedong, resulting in the founding of the People’s Republic of China.

15. Cuban Revolution

            Time span: 1953 to 1959

            Location: Cuba

            Note: Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime and established a communist government.

16. Iranian Revolution

            Time span: 1978 to 1979

            Location: Iran

            Note: Overthrew the Shah’s regime and established an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini.

17. Velvet Revolution

            Time span: 1989

            Location: Czechoslovakia

            Note: Peaceful overthrow of communist rule, leading to democracy.

18. Romanian Revolution

            Time span: 1989

            Location: Romania

            Note: Violent end to Nicolae Ceauescu’s dictatorship and the fall of communism.

19. Arab Spring

            Time span: 2010 to 2012

            Location: Middle East and North Africa

            Note: Series of uprisings against authoritarian regimes, with mixed outcomes.

 

Chapter-3: World Literature & Cinema

World’s Greatest Writers and Poets

1. Aeschylus – Ancient Greek tragedian, known for introducing the second actor in Greek drama
2. Dante Alighieri – Italian poet, author of ‘The Divine Comedy’
3. Maya Angelou – American poet and civil rights activist, known for ‘I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings’
4. Jane Austen – English novelist, known for ‘Pride and Prejudice’ and ‘Emma’
5. Honore de Balzac – French novelist, known for ‘La Comedie Humaine’
6. Samuel Beckett – Irish playwright and novelist, known for ‘Waiting for Godot’
7. Jorge Luis Borges – Argentine writer and poet, master of metaphysical short stories
8. Bertolt Brecht – German poet and dramatist, known for ‘The Threepenny Opera’
9. Emily Bronte – English novelist and poet, known for ‘Wuthering Heights’
10. Elizabeth Barrett Browning – English poet, known for ‘Sonnets from the Portuguese’
11. Robert Browning – English poet and playwright, known for ‘dramatic monologues’
12. Mikhail Bulgakov – Russian writer, known for ‘The Master and Margarita’
13. Albert Camus – French-Algerian philosopher and novelist, known for ‘The Stranger’
14. Lewis Carroll – English author, known for ‘Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland’
15. Willa Cather – American novelist, known for ‘My Ántonia’
16. Miguel de Cervantes – Spanish writer, author of ‘Don Quixote’
17. Geoffrey Chaucer – English poet, known as the Father of English literature, author of ‘The Canterbury Tales’
18. Anton Chekhov – Russian playwright and short story writer
19. Agatha Christie – British writer, famous for detective novels
20. Samuel Taylor Coleridge – English Romantic poet, known for ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’
21. James Fenimore Cooper – American writer, known for ‘The Last of the Mohicans’
22. Stephen Crane – American novelist and poet, known for ‘The Red Badge of Courage’
23. Charles Dickens – English novelist, known for ‘Oliver Twist’ and ‘Great Expectations’
24. Emily Dickinson – American poet, known for her unique style and introspective poetry
25. Fyodor Dostoevsky – Russian novelist, known for ‘Crime and Punishment’ and ‘The Brothers Karamazov’
26. Alexandre Dumas – French novelist, author of ‘The Three Musketeers’ and ‘The Count of Monte Cristo’
27. George Eliot – English novelist (Mary Ann Evans), known for ‘Middlemarch’
28. T. S. Eliot – Modernist poet and playwright, known for ‘The Waste Land’
29. Ralph Waldo Emerson – American essayist, philosopher, and poet
30. Euripides – Ancient Greek playwright, known for ‘Medea’ and ‘The Bacchae’
31. William Faulkner – American novelist, known for ‘The Sound and the Fury’
32. Gustave Flaubert – French novelist, known for ‘Madame Bovary’
33. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – German writer, known for ‘Faust’
34. Nadine Gordimer – South African writer, Nobel laureate
35. Thomas Hardy – English novelist and poet, known for ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles’
36. Nathaniel Hawthorne – American novelist, author of ‘The Scarlet Letter’
37. Seamus Heaney – Irish poet, Nobel laureate
38. Ernest Hemingway – American novelist, known for ‘The Old Man and the Sea’
39. Homer – Ancient Greek poet, author of ‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’
40. Langston Hughes – African American poet and activist, key figure in the Harlem Renaissance
41. Henrik Ibsen – Norwegian playwright, known for ‘A Doll’s House’ and ‘Hedda Gabler’
42. Washington Irving – American short story writer, known for ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow’
43. Henry James – American-British author, known for ‘The Portrait of a Lady’
44. James Joyce – Irish novelist, known for ‘Ulysses and ‘A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man’
45. Franz Kafka – Czech-born writer, known for ‘The Metamorphosis’ and ‘The Trial’
46. Kalidasa – Classical Sanskrit poet and dramatist of ancient India
47. Rudyard Kipling – British writer, known for ‘The Jungle Book’
48. D. H. Lawrence – English novelist, known for ‘Sons and Lovers’
49. Harper Lee – American author, known for ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’
50. C. S. Lewis – British writer, known for ‘The Chronicles of Narnia’
51. Jack London – American novelist, known for ‘The Call of the Wild’
52. Niccolo Machiavelli – Italian writer, known for ‘The Prince’
53. Thomas Mann – German writer, known for ‘The Magic Mountain’
54. Christopher Marlowe – English dramatist, contemporary of Shakespeare, known for ‘Dr. Faustus’
55. Herman Melville – American novelist, author of ‘Moby-Dick’
56. John Milton – English poet, known for ‘Paradise Lost’
57. Toni Morrison – American novelist and Nobel laureate
58. Murasaki Shikibu – Japanese author of ‘The Tale of Genji’
59. George Orwell – English novelist and essayist, known for ‘1984’ and ‘Animal Farm’
60. Ovid – Roman poet, known for ‘Metamorphoses’
61. Boris Pasternak – Russian poet and author of ‘Doctor Zhivago’
62. Sylvia Plath – American poet and novelist, known for ‘The Bell Jar’
63. Edgar Allan Poe – American poet and short story writer, master of Gothic fiction
64. Marcel Proust – French novelist, known for ‘In Search of Lost Time’
65. Alexander Pushkin – Russian poet, founder of modern Russian literature
66. Rainer Maria Rilke – Austrian poet, known for his lyric intensity
67. Jean-Jacques Rousseau – French philosopher and writer, known for ‘Social Contact’
68. William Shakespeare – English playwright and poet, widely regarded as the greatest writer of all time
69. Percy Bysshe Shelley – English Romantic poet
70. George Bernard Shaw – Irish playwright and critic
71. Sophocles – Ancient Greek tragedian, author of ‘Oedipus Rex’
72. Edmund Spenser – English poet, known for ‘The Faerie Queene’
73. Jonathan Swift – Irish satirist, author of ‘Gulliver’s Travels’
74. Rabindranath Tagore – Indian poet, novelist, and Nobel laureate
75. Leo Tolstoy – Russian novelist, author of ‘War and Peace’ and ‘Anna Karenina’
76. Mark Twain – American humorist and writer, known for ‘The Adventures of Tom Sawyer’
77. Virgil – Roman poet, author of the ‘Aeneid’
78. Kurt Vonnegut – American satirical novelist
79. Alice Walker – American author and poet, known for ‘The Colour Purple’
80. Walt Whitman – American poet, known for ‘Leaves of Grass’
81. Oscar Wilde – Irish poet and playwright, known for ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’
82. Virginia Woolf – English novelist and modernist thinker
83. William Wordsworth – English Romantic poet, known for lyrical ballads
84. W. B. Yeats – Irish poet and playwright, Nobel laureate
85. Emile Zola – French novelist and critic, known for ‘Germinal’

Classic Books and Their Authors

Book                           Author

A Bend in the River – V. S. Naipaul

A Doll’s House – Henrik Ibsen

A Farewell to Arms – Ernest Hemingway

A Passage to India – E. M. Forster

A Tale of Two Cities – Charles Dickens

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn – Mark Twain

All Quiet on the Western Front – Erich Maria Remarque

Anna Karenina – Leo Tolstoy

Antigone – Sophocles

Arabian Nights – Various authors from the Middle East

Beloved – Toni Morrison

Blindness – Jose Saramago

Brothers Karamazov – Fyodor Dostoevsky

Candide – Voltaire

Crime and Punishment – Fyodor Dostoevsky

David Copperfield – Charles Dickens

Dead Souls – Nikolai Gogol

Don Quixote – Miguel de Cervantes

Dracula – Bram Stoker

Dubliners – James Joyce

Faust – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Frankenstein – Mary Shelley

Germinal – Emile Zola

Great Expectations – Charles Dickens

Gulliver’s Travels – Jonathan Swift

Hamlet – William Shakespeare

Heart of Darkness – Joseph Conrad

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings – Maya Angelou

Iliad – Homer

Inferno – Dante Alighieri

Jane Eyre – Charlotte Bronte

Journey to the West – Wu Cheng’en

King Lear – William Shakespeare

Leaves of Grass – Walt Whitman

Les Misérables – Victor Hugo

Life and Times of Michael K – J. M. Coetzee

Lolita – Vladimir Nabokov

Madame Bovary – Gustave Flaubert

Mahabharata – Vyasa

Man’s Search for Meaning – Viktor E. Frankl

Manon Lescaut – Abbe Prevost

Medea – Euripides

Middlemarch – George Eliot

Moby-Dick – Herman Melville

Nana – Emile Zola

Native Son – Richard Wright

Night – Elie Wiesel

Odyssey – Homer

Oedipus Rex – Sophocles

Of Mice and Men – John Steinbeck

One Hundred Years of Solitude – G García Márquez

Othello – William Shakespeare

Out of Africa – Isak Dinesen

Pride and Prejudice – Jane Austen

Ramayana – Valmiki

Robinson Crusoe – Daniel Defoe

Sense and Sensibility – Jane Austen

Siddhartha – Hermann Hesse

Song of Solomon – Toni Morrison

Tess of the d’Urbervilles – Thomas Hardy

The Aeneid – Virgil

The Alchemist – Paulo Coelho

The Analects – Confucius

The Arabian Nights – Middle Eastern folk tales

The Brothers Karamazov – Fyodor Dostoevsky

The Canterbury Tales – Geoffrey Chaucer

The Castle – Franz Kafka

The Colour Purple – Alice Walker

The Count of Monte Cristo – Alexandre Dumas

The Divine Comedy – Dante Alighieri

The Grapes of Wrath – John Steinbeck

The Great Gatsby – F. Scott Fitzgerald

The Hunchback of Notre-Dame – Victor Hugo

The Iliad – Homer

The Interpretation of Dreams – Sigmund Freud

The Little Prince – Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

The Magic Mountain – Thomas Mann

The Mahabharata – Vyasa

The Metamorphosis – Franz Kafka

The Old Man and the Sea – Ernest Hemingway

The Picture of Dorian Gray – Oscar Wilde

The Plague – Albert Camus

The Prince – Niccolo Machiavelli

The Ramayana – Valmiki

The Republic – Plato

The Scarlet Letter – Nathaniel Hawthorne

The Stranger – Albert Camus

The Tale of Genji – Murasaki Shikibu

The Tempest – William Shakespeare

The Trial – Franz Kafka

The Waste Land – T. S. Eliot

Things Fall Apart – Chinua Achebe

To Kill a Mockingbird – Harper Lee

Treasure Island – Robert Louis Stevenson

Ulysses – James Joyce

Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher Stowe

War and Peace – Leo Tolstoy

Wuthering Heights – Emily Bronte

Zorba the Greek – Nikos Kazantzakis

Books Written in Prison

1. A Letter to His Father – Franz Kafka
2. A Season in Hell – Arthur Rimbaud
3. Ballad of Reading Gaol – Oscar Wilde
4. Beyond Good and Evil – Friedrich Nietzsche
5. Civil Disobedience – Henry David Thoreau
6. Conversations with Myself – Nelson Mandela
7. De Profundis – Oscar Wilde
8. Don Quixote (Part I) – Miguel de Cervantes
9. Dreams from the Heart – Mahatma Gandhi
10. Letters from Birmingham Jail – M Luther King Jr.
11. Memoirs from the House of Dead – F Dostoevsky
12. Mein Kampf – Adolf Hitler
13. On the Jail Experiences – Antonio Gramsci
14. Prison Notebooks – Antonio Gramsci
15. Soul on Ice – Eldridge Cleaver
16. The Consolation of Philosophy – Boethius
17. The Gulag Archipelago – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
18. The House of the Dead – Fyodor Dostoevsky
19. The Prison Poems – Ho Chi Minh
20. The Wretched of the Earth – Frantz Fanon
21. World to Turn It Upside Down – Simone Weil
22. Why We Can’t Wait – Martin Luther King Jr.

World Epics with Authors

1. The Iliad – Homer (Greece)
2. The Odyssey – Homer (Greece)
3. The Aeneid – Virgil (Rome)
4. Mahabharata – Vyasa (India)
5. Ramayana – Valmiki (India)
6. Shahnameh – Ferdowsi (Persia/Iran)
7. Epic of Gilgamesh – Unknown
8. Beowulf – Unknown (Anglo-Saxon England)
9. The Divine Comedy – Dante Alighieri (Italy)
10. The Lusiads – Luís Vaz de Camoes (Portugal)
11. Paradise Lost – John Milton (England)
12. The Kalevala – Elias Lonnrot (Finland)
13. Nibelungenlied – Unknown (Germany)
14. Jerusalem Delivered – Torquato Tasso (Italy)
15. Os Lusíadas – Luís Vaz de Camoes (Portugal)
16. Orlando Furioso – Ludovico Ariosto (Italy)
17. Metamorphoses – Ovid (Rome)
18. Manas – Oral Tradition (Kyrgyzstan)
19. Epic of Sundiata – Oral Tradition (Mali)
20. Popol Vuh – Unknown (Maya Civilization)
21. Chanson de Roland – Unknown (France)
22. Epic of King Gesar – Oral Tradition (Tibet/Mongolia)
23. Atra-Hasis – Unknown (Ancient Mesopotamia)
24. La Araucana – Alonso de Ercilla (Spain/Chile)
25. Silappatikaram – Ilango Adigal (India – Tamil)
26. Shakuntala – Kalidasa (India – Sanskrit)
27. Enuma Elis – Unknown (Babylon/Mesopotamia)
28. Kumarasambhavam – Kalidasa (India – Sanskrit)
29. Tain Bo Cuailnge – Oral Tradition (Ireland)
30. Edda – Various (Old Norse/Iceland)

Major Literary Movements

1. Classical Literature

            Time: 8th century BCE – 5th century CE

2.   Medieval Literature

            Time: 5th – 15th century

            Focused on religious themes, chivalry, and morality; often written in Latin or vernaculars.

3. Renaissance

            Time: 14th – 17th century

            Celebrated humanism, individualism, and rediscovery of classical ideals.

4. Neoclassicism

            Time: 17th – 18th century

            Emphasized order, decorum, and reason; inspired by classical Greek and Roman literature.

5. Enlightenment

            Time: 17th – 18th century

            Promoted logic, science, and intellectual exchange; featured satire and essays.

6. Romanticism

            Time: Late 18th – mid-19th century

            Focused on emotion, nature, individualism, and imagination.

7. Transcendentalism

            Time: Early to mid-19th century (America)

            Emphasized spiritual insight, nature, and self-reliance.

8. Realism

            Time: Mid-19th century

            Portrayed everyday life and society as it was, with focus on ordinary characters and events.

9. Naturalism

            Time: Late 19th century

            An extension of realism, influenced by science and determinism, focusing on harsh realities.

10. Symbolism

            Time: Late 19th century

            Used metaphorical and symbolic language to express deeper truths, especially in poetry.

11. Modernism

            Time: Late 19th – mid-20th century

            Rejected traditional forms; emphasized fragmentation, stream of consciousness, and experimental styles.

12. Imagism

            Time: Early 20th century

13. Harlem Renaissance

            Time: 1920s

14. Surrealism

            Time: 1920s – 1940s

15. Existentialism

            Time: 20th century

16. Postmodernism

            Time: Mid to late 20th century

17. Beat Generation

            Time: 1940s – 1960s

18. Confessional Poetry

            Time: 1950s – 1970s

19. Magical Realism

            Time: 20th century

20. Feminist Literature

            Time: 20th century to present

21. Postcolonial Literature

            Time: Mid-20th century to present

22. Eco-Criticism / Environmental Literature

            Time: Late 20th century to present

23. Digital Literature / Cyberliterature

            Time: 21st century

Prohibited Books and  Authors

1. The Satanic Verses – Salman Rushdie
2. Mein Kampf – Adolf Hitler
3. Lady Chatterley’s Lover – D. H. Lawrence
4. Tropic of Cancer – Henry Miller
5. Lolita – Vladimir Nabokov
6. The Gulag Archipelago – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
7. Life of Ivan Denisovich – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
8. 1984 – George Orwell
9. Animal Farm – George Orwell
10. Ulysses – James Joyce
11. The Anarchist Cookbook – William Powell
12. The Catcher in the Rye – J. D. Salinger
13. The Communist Manifesto – K Marx and F Engels
14. The Grapes of Wrath – John Steinbeck
15. The Bible – Various authors
16. The Qur’an – Various authors
17. Fahrenheit 451 – Ray Bradbury
18. A Clockwork Orange – Anthony Burgess
19. The Well of Loneliness – Radclyffe Hall
20. The Color Purple – Alice Walker
21. Persepolis – Marjane Satrapi
22. Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher Stowe
23. Brave New World – Aldous Huxley
24. The Diary of Anne Frank – Anne Frank
25. Nineteen Eighty-Four – George Orwell
26. Leaves of Grass – Walt Whitman

Famous Cinemas Throughout the World

1. TCL Chinese Theatre – Los Angeles, USA
2. The Grand Rex – Paris, France
3. Radio City Music Hall – New York City, USA
4. Odeon Leicester Square – London, UK
5. Cinema Teatro alla Scala – Milan, Italy
6. Raj Mandir Cinema – Jaipur, India
7. Electric Cinema – London, UK
8. Castro Theatre – San Francisco, USA
9. Pathé Tuschinski – Amsterdam, Netherlands
10. Cineteca Nacional – Mexico City, Mexico
11. Puskin Art Cinema – Budapest, Hungary
12. Kino International – Berlin, Germany
13. Colosseum Kino – Oslo, Norway
14. Cinema City – Jerusalem, Israel
15. Alamo Drafthouse – Austin, USA
16. Cinema Nova – Melbourne, Australia
17. Cinematheque Française – Paris, France
18. KINO Babylon – Berlin, Germany
19. EYE Film Institute – Amsterdam, Netherlands
20. The Egyptian Theatre – Hollywood, USA
21. Lumiere Institute – Lyon, France
22. National Film Theatre – London, UK
23. Roxy Theatre – New York City, USA
24. The Castro – San Francisco, USA
25. Toho Cinemas Shinjuku – Tokyo, Japan

Chapter-4: Religion and Culture

Major Religions and Their Origin

1. Hinduism

            Origin: Indian subcontinent

            Time: Around 1500 BCE or earlier

            Founder: No single founder; evolved from ancient Vedic traditions

2. Judaism

            Origin: Middle East (Canaan region, present-day Israel/Palestine)

            Time: Around 2000 BCE

            Founder: Abraham (patriarchal figure)

3. Zoroastrianism

            Origin: Ancient Persia (modern-day Iran)

            Time: Around 1200–1000 BCE

            Founder: Zoroaster (Zarathustra)

4. Buddhism

            Origin: India (modern-day Nepal and northern India)

            Time: Around 6th century BCE

            Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

5. Jainism

            Origin: India

            Time: Around 6th century BCE

            Founder: Mahavira (last of the 24 Tirthankaras)

6. Confucianism

            Origin: China

            Time: Around 6th century BCE

            Founder: Confucius (Kong Fuzi)

7. Taoism (Daoism)

            Origin: China

            Time: Around 4th century BCE

            Founder: Laozi (traditionally credited)

8. Christianity

            Origin: Judea (modern-day Israel/Palestine)

            Time: 1st century CE

            Founder: Jesus of Nazareth

9. Islam

            Origin: Mecca and Medina (modern-day Saudi Arabia)

            Time: 7th century CE

            Founder: Prophet Muhammad

10. Sikhism

            Origin: Punjab region (India)

            Time: 15th century CE

            Founder: Guru Nanak Dev

11. Shinto

            Origin: Japan

            Time: Ancient (pre-6th century CE)

            Founder: No single founder; based on indigenous traditions

12. Baha’i Faith

            Origin: Persia (modern-day Iran)

            Time: 19th century CE

            Founder: Baha’u’llah

13. Tenrikyo

            Origin: Japan

            Time: 19th century CE

            Founder: Nakayama Miki

14. Cao Dai

            Origin: Vietnam

            Time: 20th century CE

            Founder: Ngo Van Chieu and others (spiritual visionaries)

15. Rastafarianism

            Origin: Jamaica

            Time: 1930s CE

            Founder: Marcus Garvey (prophetic figure), followers of Emperor Haile Selassie

Famous Shrines of the World

1. Kaaba – Mecca, Saudi Arabia
2. Vatican (St. Peter’s Basilica) – Vatican City
3. Western Wall – Jerusalem, Israel
4. Church of the Holy Sepulchre – Jerusalem, Israel
5. Bodh Gaya – Bihar, India
6. Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) – Amritsar, India
7. Kashi Vishwanath Temple – Varanasi, India
8. Shwedagon Pagoda – Yangon, Myanmar
9. Shrine of Imam Ali – Najaf, Iraq
10. Shrine of Imam Hussain – Karbala, Iraq
11. Lourdes Sanctuary – Lourdes, France
12. Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe – Mexico City, Mexico
13. Fatima Shrine – Fatima, Portugal
14. Senso-ji Temple – Tokyo, Japan
15. Ise Grand Shrine – Mie Prefecture, Japan
16. Mount Kailash – Tibet (China)
17. Mahabodhi Temple – Bodh Gaya, India
18. Basilica of Saint Francis – Assisi, Italy
19. Shrine of Baha’u’llah – Acre (Akko), Israel
20. Temple of the Tooth (Sri Dalada Maligawa) – Kandy, Sri Lanka

Major Festivals of the World

1. Diwali – India and worldwide

            Festival of Lights celebrated by Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and some Buddhists.

2. Christmas – Worldwide

            Celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ; observed by Christians and culturally by many others.

3. Eid ul-Fitr – Muslim countries and global Muslim communities

            Marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting.

4. Eid ul-Adha – Muslim countries and global Muslim communities

            Festival of Sacrifice, commemorating Prophet Ibrahim’s devotion.

5. Chinese New Year – China and many parts of Asia

            Celebrated with family reunions, lanterns, and parades.

6. Hanukkah – Israel and Jewish communities worldwide

            Jewish Festival of Lights commemorating the rededication of the Second Temple.

7. Vesak (Buddha Purnima) – South and Southeast Asia

            Commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and death of Gautama Buddha.

8. Easter – Worldwide

            Christian celebration of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

9. Holi – India and Nepal

            Hindu festival of colours and the arrival of spring.

10. Nowruz – Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East

            Persian New Year, marking the beginning of spring.

11. Halloween – United States, Canada, Europe

            Celebration with costumes, trick-or-treating, and spooky themes.

12. Thanksgiving – United States and Canada

            Holiday of gratitude celebrated with family meals and harvest traditions.

13. Navaratri/Durga Puja – India and Nepal

            Hindu festivals celebrating goddess Durga over nine nights.

14. Passover – Israel and Jewish communities worldwide

            Jewish festival commemorating the Israelites’ liberation from Egypt.

15. Songkran – Thailand

            Thai New Year celebrated with water fights and traditional rituals.

16. Oktoberfest – Germany and global cities

            The world’s largest beer festival held in Munich with Bavarian culture and food.

17. Carnival – Brazil, Caribbean, parts of Europe

            Massive pre-Lenten celebration with parades, music, and dancing.

18. Ganesha Chaturthi – India

            Celebration of the birth of Lord Ganesha with statues, processions, and prayers.

19. Yom Kippur – Israel and Jewish communities

            The Jewish Day of Atonement; marked by fasting and prayer.

20. Obon – Japan

            Buddhist festival honouring the spirits of ancestors.

21. Makar Sankranti – India and Nepal

            Harvest festival celebrated with kite flying and offerings to the Sun.

22. Ram Navami – India

            Hindu celebration of the birth of Lord Rama.

23. Baisakhi – India (Punjab)

            Harvest festival and Sikh New Year; also marks the founding of the Khalsa.

24. Kwanzaa – United States

            Celebration of African heritage and culture in African-American communities.

Chapter-6: Science and Technology

Main Branches of Science

1. Physical Science

      Physics – Study of matter, energy, motion, and force.

      Chemistry – Study of the composition, properties, and reactions of substances.

      Astronomy – Study of celestial bodies like stars, planets, and galaxies.

      Geology – Study of Earth’s structure, materials, and processes.

      Meteorology – Study of weather and atmospheric phenomena.

      Oceanography – Study of oceans, marine organisms, and marine processes.

2. Life Science (Biological Science)

      Biology – Study of life and living organisms.

      Botany – Study of plants.

      Zoology – Study of animals.

      Microbiology – Study of microorganisms.

      Genetics – Study of genes and heredity.

      Anatomy – Study of the structure of organisms.

      Physiology – Study of the functions of living organisms.

      Ecology – Study of the relationship between organisms and their environment.

      Evolutionary Biology – Study of the origin and changes in life over time.

      Biotechnology – Application of biology and technology.

3. Earth Science

      Geology – Study of Earth’s structure and materials.

      Seismology – Study of earthquakes and seismic waves.

      Volcanology – Study of volcanoes.

      Paleontology – Study of fossils and ancient life.

      Hydrology – Study of water in the environment.

      Climatology – Study of climates and climatic changes.

4. Environmental Science

      Environmental Biology – Study of how living organisms affect and are affected by the environment.

      Conservation Science – Study of methods to preserve natural resources.

      Soil Science – Study of soil formation, classification, and mapping.

5. Social Sciences

      Psychology – Study of the human mind and behaviour.

      Sociology – Study of society and social relationships.

      Anthropology – Study of human origins and cultures.

      Economics – Study of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

      Political Science – Study of politics, government systems, and political behaviour.

      Geography – Study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.

      Linguistics – Study of language and its structure.

6. Formal Sciences

      Mathematics – Study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and patterns.

      Statistics – Study of data collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation.

      Logic – Study of valid reasoning and argument.

      Theoretical Computer Science – Study of the abstract and mathematical aspects of computing.

Inventions and Discoveries

      Wheel – Invented in Mesopotamia (circa 3500 BCE)

      Plough – Ancient Mesopotamia (circa 3000 BCE)

      Papyrus – Ancient Egypt (circa 3000 BCE)

      Sundial – Ancient Egypt (circa 1500 BCE)

      Water Clock (Clepsydra) – Ancient Babylon & Egypt

      Compass – Ancient China (circa 200 BCE)

      Gunpowder – Ancient China (9th century)

      Printing Press (Woodblock) – Ancient China (7th century)

      Mechanical Clock – Yi Xing (China, 725 CE)

      Printing Press – Johannes Gutenberg (1440)

      Parachute – Leonardo da Vinci

      Telescope – Hans Lippershey/Galileo Galilei (1608)

      Microscope – Zacharias Janssen (1590)

      Barometer – Evangelista Torricelli (1643)

      Steam Engine (Prototype) – Thomas Savery (1698), improved by Thomas Newcomen and James Watt

      Mercury Thermometer – Gabriel Fahrenheit (1714)

      Lightning Rod – Benjamin Franklin (1752)

      Spinning Jenny – James Hargreaves (1764)

      Power Loom – Edmund Cartwright (1785)

      Cotton Gin – Eli Whitney (1793)

      Steam Locomotive – Richard Trevithick (1804)

      Steam Boat – Robert Fulton (1807)

      Stethoscope – Rene Laennec (1816)

      Photograph (First) – Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1826)

      Typewriter – Christopher Latham Sholes (1868)

      Telephone – Alexander Graham Bell (1876)

      Electric Light Bulb – Thomas Edison (1879)

      Microphone – Emile Berliner (1877)

      Automobile (Gas-powered) – Karl Benz (1886)

      Motorcycle – Gottlieb Daimler (1885)

      Diesel Engine – Rudolf Diesel (1893)

      X-rays – Wilhelm Roentgen (1895)

      Radio – Guglielmo Marconi (1895)

      Zipper – Whitcomb Judson (1893)

      Airplane – Wright Brothers (1903)

      Plastic (Bakelite) – Leo Baekeland (1907)

      Stainless Steel – Harry Brearley (1913)

      Tanks – First used in WWI (1916)

      Insulin (Medical use) – Banting & Best (1921)

      Lie Detector (Polygraph) – John Larson (1921)

      Television – John Logie Baird (1927)

      Ballpoint Pen – Laszlo Bíro (1938)

      Jet Engine – Frank Whittle (1937)

      Nuclear Reactor – Enrico Fermi (1942)

      Atomic Bomb – Manhattan Project (1945)

      Microwave Oven – Percy Spencer (1945)

      Transistor – Bardeen, Brattain (1947)

      Credit Card – Frank McNamara (1950)

      Barcode – Norman Joseph Woodland (1951)

      Hovercraft – Christopher Cockerell (1955)

      Laser – Theodore Maiman (1960)

      Computer Mouse – Douglas Engelbart (1964)

      Email – Ray Tomlinson (1971)

      Mobile Phone – Martin Cooper (1973)

      Inkjet Printer – 1976

      Artificial Heart – Dr. Robert Jarvik (1982)

      3D Printing (Concept) – Charles Hull (1984)

      World Wide Web – Tim Berners-Lee (1989)

      GPS (Global Positioning System) – Fully operational by 1995

      USB Flash Drive – Dov Moran (2000)

      Blu-ray Disc – Released in 2003

      Smartphone (Modern) – Apple iPhone (2007)

      Bitcoin (Blockchain) – Satoshi Nakamoto (2008)

      Tablet PC (iPad) – Apple (2010)

      CRISPR Gene Editing – Developed in the early 2010s

      Self-Driving Car (Prototype) – Google (2012)

      Reusable Rockets – SpaceX (First successful landing, 2015)

      Foldable Smartphones – Commercial release from           COVID-19

      mRNA Vaccines – Pfizer-BioNTech & Moderna (2020)

      Safety Pin – Walter Hunt (1849)

      Matches (Friction) – John Walker (1826)

      Refrigerator – Carl von Linde (1876)

      Toilet Paper (Commercial) – Joseph Gayetty (1857)

      Velcro – George de Mestral (1941)

      Air Conditioner – Willis Carrier (1902)

      Elevator (Safety Mechanism) – Elisha Otis (1852)

      Washing Machine – Alva J. Fisher (1908)

      Microwave Oven – Percy Spencer (1945)

      Digital Camera – Steven Sasson (1975)

Nobel Prize Winners 2024

      Physiology or Medicine:Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun

      Physics: John J. Hopfield and Geoffrey E. Hinton

      Chemistry: David Baker, Demis Hassabis, and John M. Jumper

      Literature: Han Kang (South Korea)

      Peace: Nihon Hidankyo (Japan)

      Economic Sciences: Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson

Internationally Observed Days

January

      January 24 – International Day of Education

      January 27 – International Day of Commemoration in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust

February

      February 4 – International Day of Human Fraternity

      February 6 – International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation

      February 11 – International Day of Women and Girls in Science

      February 13 – World Radio Day

      February 20 – World Day of Social Justice

      February 21 – International Mother Language Day

March

      March 8 – International Women’s Day

      March 20 – International Day of Happiness

      March 21 – International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

      March 21 – World Poetry Day

      March 22 – World Water Day

      March 24 – World Tuberculosis Day

      March 25 – International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery

April

      April 2 – World Autism Awareness Day

      April 7 – World Health Day

      April 22 – International Mother Earth Day

      April 25 – World Malaria Day

May

      May 1 – International Workers’ Day (Labour Day)

      May 3 – World Press Freedom Day

      May 15 – International Day of Families

      May 17 – World Telecommunication and Information Society Day

      May 21 – World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development

      May 31 – World No-Tobacco Day

June

      June 5 – World Environment Day

      June 8 – World Oceans Day

      June 12 – World Day Against Child Labour

      June 14 – World Blood Donor Day

      June 20 – World Refugee Day

      June 21 – International Day of Yoga

July

      July 11 – World Population Day

      July 15 – World Youth Skills Day

      July 30 – International Day of Friendship

August

      August 9 – International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples

      August 12 – International Youth Day

      August 19 – World Humanitarian Day

      August 23 – International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and Its Abolition

September

      September 8 – International Literacy Day

      September 15 – International Day of Democracy

      September 21 – International Day of Peace

      September 27 – World Tourism Day

October

      October 1 – International Day of Older Persons

      October 5 – World Teachers’ Day

      October 10 – World Mental Health Day

      October 11 – International Day of the Girl Child

      October 16 – World Food Day

      October 17 – International Day for the Eradication of Poverty

      October 24 – United Nations Day

November

      November 14 – World Diabetes Day

      November 16 – International Day for Tolerance

      November 20 – Universal Children’s Day

      November 25 – International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women

December

      December 1 – World AIDS Day

      December 2 – International Day for the Abolition of Slavery

      December 3 – International Day of Persons with Disabilities

      December 5 – International Volunteer Day

      December 10 – Human Rights Day

      December 18 – International Migrants Day. 0 0 0

The End: Assam to World G K

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ৰাব্বি মছৰুৰ  ৰচিত  কেইখনমান গ্রন্থ:

• অসমীয়া লেখক পৰিচয়
• বিশ্ব ব্যক্তি পৰিচয়
• অসমীয়া ৰচনা শিক্ষা
• অসমীয়া ভাব সম্প্রসাৰণ
• এক গুচ্ছ জীৱনী
• শিশু পদ্য
• অসমীয়া অনুবাদত বিশ্ব চুটি গল্প
• অসমীয়া অনুবাদত বিশ্ব কবিতা
• অসমীয়া অনুবাদত বিদেশী কবিতা
• পৃথিৱীৰ আৰু মোৰ (কাব্য সংকলন)
• সংহতিৰ ভাড়া ঘৰ ( কাব্য সংকলন)
• মোৰ গীত তোমাৰ সুৰ (গীতি কবিতা সংকলন)
• তুমি কেমন প্রেমিক (বাংলা কাব্য সংকলন)
• তোমাকে বলছি (বাংলা কবিতা সংকলন)
• ফণী শৰ্মাৰ নাটক ‘চিৰাজ’-এক সমালোচনা
• হীৰেন ভট্টাচাৰ্যৰ কবিতা -এক বিশ্লেষণাত্মক অধ্যয়ন
• ইছমাইল হোছেইনৰ কবিতা : এক বৈশিষ্ট্যমূলক আলোচনা 
• ইছমাইল হোছেইনৰ কবিতা: এক বিশ্লেষণাত্মক অধ্যয়
• অসমীয়া উপন্যাস সমালোচনা
• অসমীয়া চুটি গল্প সমালোচনা
• মৌলানা আবুল কালাম আজাদ (চমু জীবনী)
• অসমীয়া কবি প্রতিভা (সাহিত্য সমালোচনা)
• নির্বাচিত অসমীয়া কবিতা সমালোচনা
• অসমীয়া ব্যাকৰণ ক অংশ
• অসমীয়া ব্যাকৰণ খ অংশ
• নির্বাচিত অসমীয়া কবিতাৰ মূলভাব
• আৰবী সাহিত্যৰ ইতিহাস:প্রাক-ইসলামী যুগ (৫০০-৬২২ খৃ:)
• আৰবী সাহিত্যৰ ইতিহাস:প্রাথমিক ইসলামী যুগ (৬২২-৬৬১)…

Some Important Books for Students:

1. Advertisement Writing
2. Amplification Writing
3. Note Making
4. Paragraph Writing
5. Notice Writing
6. Passage Comprehension
7. The Art of Poster Writing
8. The Art of Letter Writing
9. Report Writing
10. Story Writing
11. Substance Writing
12. School Essays Part-I
13. School Essays Part-II
14. School English Grammar Part-I
15. School English Grammar Part-II.